Chinese Mexicans: Transpacific Migration and the Search for a Homeland, 1910-1960

Notes

179 Notes Abbreviations AGES Archivo General del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo AGN Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City AGPJES Archivo General del Poder Judicial del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora ALMC Adolfo López Mateos Collection, Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City File 55771 File 55771, Immigration and Naturalization Service Files, Record Group 85, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. LCDRC Lázaro Cárdenas del Río Collection, Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico City PJMA Papers of José María Arana, Special Collections, University of Arizona Library, Tucson SREAC Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Archivo de Concentraciones, Mexico City SREAHGE Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Archivo Histórico Genaro Estrada, Mexico City Introduction 1. Wong Campoy, interview. All translations from Spanish into English are by the author unless otherwise indicated; the original recordings or copies of the archival documents are available from the author. 2. Knight, “Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo,” 71, 86, 102; see also Rénique, “Race, Region, and Nation”; Vasconcelos, Raza cósmica; Gamio, Forjando patria. 3. Espinoza, Ejemplo de Sonora. 4. Regional identification outweighed national affinity, and there were “many Mexicos ” in this period. See, for example, Benjamin and McNellie, Other Mexicos; Alonso, Thread of Blood. On the regional character of Sonora, see Salas, In the Shadow of the Eagles. See also Anderson, Imagined Communities. Local and regional identities were also stronger than the concept of the nation in China during this time; see Hsu, Dreaming of Gold; Chan, Asian Americans. 5. On the relationship between national sovereignty and border control and migration laws, see McKeown, Melancholy Order; on the Spanish Civil War, see Schuler, Mexico between Hitler and Roosevelt. 180 | Notes to Pages 9–13 6. Here I use Lok C. D. Siu’s concept of “diasporic citizenship.” See Siu, Memories of a Future Home; see also Louie, Chineseness across Borders; McKeown, “Ritualization of Regulation”; Wang, China and the Chinese Overseas; Wang, Community and Nation; Gilroy, Black Atlantic; Clifford, Routes; Lesser, Searching for Home; Lesser, Discontented Diaspora; Safran, “Diasporas in Modern Societies”; Clifford, “Diasporas.” 7. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold; see also Hsu, “Unwrapping Orientalist Constraints,” 230– 53, for a discussion of the ways Chinese drew on homosocial traditions in China during the “bachelor era” of Chinese American history. 8. On the transnational families of Chinese in Mexico, see Robert Chao Romero, Chinese in Mexico. On Peru, see Lausent-­ Herrera, “Mujeres olvidadas.” On the United States, see Hsu, Dreaming of Gold; Hsu, “Unwrapping Orientalist Constraints,” 241–43, 249. 9. Pan, Encyclopedia, 77–78; Hsu, Dreaming of Gold; Wang, China and the Chinese Overseas; Wang,Community and Nation; Wang “Sojourning,” 1–14; Kuhn,Chinese among Others; McKeown, Chinese Migrant Networks; Hein, “State Incorporation of Migrants”; see also Bonacich, “Theory.” 10. Chan, Asian Americans, 5–8; Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, 1–5; Pan, Encyclopedia, 27–30, 35–37; see also Mei, “Economic Origins.” Until 1960, more than half of all Chinese in the United States came from Taishan County. See Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, 3, Mei, “Economic Origins,” 465. 11. See, for example, Chan, “People of Exceptional Character”; Hill, Tarnished Gold; Rohe, “After the Gold Rush”; Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain; Ettinger, Imaginary Lines; see also Owens, Riches for All. 12. Saxton, Indispensable Enemy; Saxton, Rise and Fall. 13. Wunder, “Law and the Chinese,” 139. 14. Chan, “Exclusion of Chinese Women”; Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers; Peffer, If They Don’t Bring; Chan, Asian Americans; Yung, Unbound Feet; Luibhéid, Entry Denied. 15. See Lee, At America’s Gates; see also Ngai, Impossible Subjects; Robert Chao Romero, Chinese in Mexico; Chan, Entry Denied; Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers; Luibhéid, Entry Denied; McClain, In Search of Equality. 16. Lee, “Orientalisms”; Siu, Memories of a Future Home; Rustomji-­ Kerns, Srikanth, and Strobel, Encounters. 17. Scholars have warned against privileging the United States in the history of migration in the Americas. Although we should be mindful of these concerns, as Lee has argued, “we cannot discount the overwhelming role that the United States did play— and continues to play—in the hemisphere, and indeed the world” (“Orientalisms,” 250). 18. Lee, At America’s Gates, 151. 19. Hu-­ DeHart, “Racism”; Hu-­ DeHart, “Latin America”; Lee, At America’s Gates, 157– 58; Dennis, “Anti-­ Chinese Campaigns,” 66; see also Mishima, Destino México; Kisines, “Migración y legislación.” 20. Hu-­ DeHart, “Racism,” 2–4, 13; Lee, At America’s Gates, 157–58; Dennis, “Anti-­ Chinese Campaigns,” 66; Knight, “Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo...