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166 Rationalism 19 0The so-called “Age of Reason” had a profound effect on Christian ethics. In England it found an early and eloquent spokesman sympathetic to the Christian Faith in John Locke (1632–1704). His insistence that one must make the distinction between propositions which are (1) according to reason, (2) above reason, and (3) contrary to reason, and that the teachings of the Christian faith may be “according to reason” or “above reason” but never “contrary to reason” was at the heart of Christian rationalism. It influenced the social teaching of the Christian churches by insisting that ethics be grounded in reason rather than revelation. While this approach developed first in England and found in the Anglican Bishop Joseph Butler (1692–1752) one of its most eloquent spokespersons , it profoundly influenced both continental Europe and America. Christian rationalism led Thomas Paine (1737–1809) to reject in the name of reason all claims to revelation. That the appeal to the absolute authority of human reason would eventually have this result had always been the opinion of the orthodox whose worst fears were thus confirmed. Selection 1: John Locke, The Reasonableness of Christianity Because of the weakness of human beings in their sin, lust, carelessness and fear, they fail to find God in nature and by reason. Revelation thus provides a surer way to reasonable morality in view of the frailty and weakness of people’s constitutions. Next to the knowledge of one God; maker of all things; “a clear knowledge of their duty was wanting to mankind.” This part of knowledge, though cultivated with some care by some of the heathen philosophers, yet got little footing among the people. All men, indeed, under pain of displeasing the gods, were to frequent the temples: everyone went to their sacrifices and services: but the priests made it not their business to teach them virtue. If they were diligent in their observations and ceremonies ; punctual in their feasts and solemnities, and the tricks of religion; the holy tribe assured them the gods were pleased, and they looked no farther. Few went to the schools of the philosophers to be instructed in their duties, and to know what was good and evil in their actions. The priests sold the better pennyworths, and therefore had all the custom. Lustrations and processions were much easier than a clean conscience , and a steady course of virtue; and an expiatory sacrifice that atoned for the want of it, was much more convenient than a strict and holy life. No wonder then, that religion was everywhere distinguished from, and preferred to virtue; and that it was Chapter 19: Selection 1 # 167 dangerous heresy and profaneness to think the contrary. So much virtue as was necessary to hold societies together, and to contribute to the quiet of governments, the civil laws of commonwealths taught, and forced upon men that lived under magistrates. But these laws being for the most part made by such, who had no other aims but their own power, reached no farther than those things that would serve to tie men together in subjection; or at most were directly to conduce to the prosperity and temporal happiness of any people. But natural religion, in its full extent, was no-where, that I know, taken care of, by the force of natural reason. It should seem, by the little that has hitherto been done in it, that it is too hard a task for unassisted reason to establish morality in all its parts, upon its true foundation, with a clear and convincing light. And it is at least a surer and shorter way, to the apprehensions of the vulgar, and mass of mankind, that one manifestly sent from God, and coming with visible authority from him, should, as a king and law-maker, tell them their duties; and require their obedience; than leave it to the long and sometimes intricate deductions of reason, to be made out to them. Such trains of reasoning the greatest part of mankind have neither leisure to weigh; nor, for want of education and use, skill to judge of. We see how unsuccessful in this the attempts of philosophers were before our Saviour’s time. How short their several systems came of the perfection of a true and complete morality , is very visible. And if, since that, the christian philosophers have much outdone them: yet we may observe, that the first knowledge of the truths they have added, is owing to revelation...

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