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193 Notes Chapter 1: Introduction 1. Wyatt MacGaffey, “Ethnography and the Closing of the Frontier in Lower Congo, 1885–1921,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 86, no. 3 (1986): 274. 2. Simon Battestini, African Writing and Text (New York: Legas, 2000), pp. 23–24. 3. Ibid., p. 25. See L. Lévy-Bruhl, L’âme primitive (Paris: Presses Universitaire de France, 1963); C. G. Jung, Man and His Symbols (New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1964). 4. See Hans Jensen, Sign, Symbol, and Script: An Account of Man’s Efforts to Write (London: Allen and Unwin, 1935); Joseph H. Greenberg, The Languages of Africa, Publication 25 of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology , Folklore, and Linguistics (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1966; first published in 1963 in the International Journal of American Linguistics, 29, no. 1, pt. 2 [January]); J. DeFrancis, Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989); David Dalby, L’Afrique et la lettre (Lagos: Center Culturel Français, 1986). 5. Marcel Griaule, Dieu d’eau: Entretiens avec Ogotemmêli (Paris: Fayar, 1966); Mar cel Griaule and G. Dieterlen, Signes graphiques soudanais (Paris: Hermann, 1951). See Marcel Griaule and G. Dieterlen, Le renard pâle (Paris: Institut D’Eth no lo gie, 1965). 6. Wyatt MacGaffey, Astonishment and Power (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993), pp. 180–203. 7. Ibid., p. 189. 8. Ibid., pp. 180, 189. 9. Evan M. Maurer and Allen F. Roberts. Tabwa: The Rising of a New Moon: A Century of Tabwa Art (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Art, 1985). 10. Ibid.; Allen F. Roberts and Mary N. Roberts, Memory: Luba Art in the Making of History (New York: Prestel, 1997). 11. Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967). See Turner, The Drums of Affliction (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1968). 12. Including Alejo Carpentier and Nicolás Guillén; see Nicolás Guillén, “Nación y mestizaje,” in Làzara Menéndez, ed., Estudios afro-cubanos, vol. 1 (Havana: Universidad de la Habana, 1991). 13. Fernando Ortiz, Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar, trans. Harriet de Onís (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), p. 97. 14. Bronislaw Malinowski, “Introduction,” in Ortiz, Cuban Counterpoint, p. 54. 15. Ibid. 16. Fernando Ortiz, Glosario de afronegrismos (Havana: El Siglo XX, 1924). 17. See Hubert H. S. Aimes, A History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511 to 1868 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1907). 194 Notes to Pages 11–18 18. Argeliers León, “De paleros y firmas se trata,” Revista Unión, 1 (Havana: UNEAC, 1986). 19. Eric Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). chapter 2: the atlantic passage: the Spread of Kongo belief in africa and to the americas 1. John Desmond Clark, The Prehistory of Africa (New York: Praeger, 1970), p. 211. 2. James L. Newman, The People of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 141. See Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa (Madison : University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), pp. 3–16. 3. Georges Balandier, Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo (New York: Pantheon, 1968), pp. 19, 31. Balandier also refers to Nzaku, spelled Nsaku, as possessor of nobility, lord, or master and name of the first sovereign family. See also Joseph van Wing, Études Bakongos: Histories et sociologie (Brussels: Goemaere, 1921). 4. Balandier, Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo, p. 33. 5. Wing, Études Bakongos: Histories et sociologie, pp. 80–81. 6. Balandier, Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo, pp. 33–34. The passage also references the traditional religious practice of worshiping ancestors through ceremonies involving human bones, “the bone of our ancestors, we brought, we use them to anoint the chiefs.” The importance of bones and the associated worship of the ancestors are also central to Kongo-based religious practice in Cuba, where Palo Monte ceremonies designed to honor the vitality of the ancestors involve the speaking of an opening phrase to call the spirit Mambe-Yo. Mambe is the first spirit that is needed for the creation of any kind of prenda and becomes the foundation of memory for all of the spirit that are transforming into stone at the beginning of life, just as humans and animals after death become bones and then stone. See Bárbaro Martínez-Ruiz, “Mambo Comes from the Soul...