The Dharma Master Chǒngsan of Won Buddhism: Analects and Writings

Introduction

Introduction Background A proper introduction to Chŏngsan’s thought requires an account of the historical context in which new religions indigenous to Korea came into being. Around the turn of the twentieth century, in the final decades of the waning Chosŏn kingdom (1392–1910), Korea was going through what has been described as a degenerate age. The Chosŏn kingdom was plagued by internal corruption and a predatory Confucian ruling class that dominated both the capital of Seoul and the rural areas, and that had gained wealth at the expense of the common people. To make mat‑ ters worse, different factions of the ruling class fought among themselves. Foreign powers took advantage of the kingdom’s weakness and launched repeated attacks against the impotent Chosŏn court. The common people, especially the peasants, suffered grievously under oppression, exploitation, and extortion by the ruling class and by local government officials. They were made even more miserable by recurrent epidemics, floods, bitterly cold winters, and famine. Under these deplorable conditions there arose a religious movement called Tonghak (Eastern Learning). Tonghak was founded by Ch’oe Cheu (1824–1864; “Suun”) as a result of a divine revelation. In April 1860, “the Supreme Lord,” appeared to Ch’oe Cheu, directing him to teach people “the Eastern way” as opposed to the Western way (Catholicism), which was spreading rapidly in the upper classes.1 The religious doctrine of Tonghak was a synthesis of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, which Ch’oe Cheu thought should not be replaced with the Western learning. He claimed, however, that the three Eastern ways were exhausted and in need of reform.2 1 2 / The Dharma Master Chŏngsan of Won Buddhism The central tenet of Tonghak theology is the belief that humanity is heaven. Human mind is none other than God’s mind; heaven origi‑ nates in the human mind. Thus, the Lord on High, or God, is enshrined in the human body. Hence, humanity should be treated as heaven. This tenet aims to restore the dignity, liberty, and equality of human beings and raise them from the abjectness of their condition under the Chosŏn kings. Tonghak divided history into “earlier heaven” and “later heaven”; past culture and civilization, Ch’oe Cheu claimed, had ended and the new culture of the future had opened: the period of the later heaven had begun. A universal, humanitarian culture would, he predicted, unfold through an opening‑up of the spirit, of the Korean people, and society. Because the ruling class suppressed open political discussion, the peasants turned to the religious movement of Tonghak to express their grievances. In June 1861, as the number of people following him increased, Ch’oe Cheu announced the new religion. He asserted that the era had come when the nation should be strengthened and the livelihood of the people be assured, and called for reform of the corruption‑ridden government. The Chosŏn court viewed this millenarian claim as a serious threat and moved to stop the spread of the Tonghak faith. It started to oppress Tonghak followers just as it had persecuted Christians earlier. In 1863, Ch’oe Cheu was arrested on charges of misleading the people and sowing discord in the society, and he was executed the following year.3 Tonghak did not, however, fade away, and the second patriarch, Ch’oe Sihyŏng (1829–1898; “Haewŏl”), systematized the doctrine of Tonghak as a new religion, collecting it in a volume, the Tonggyŏng taejŏn (Great canon of Tonghak).4 The peasants’ deep hostility toward the aristocratic class helped the Tonghak movement to gain momentum. In 1894, a peasant revolt broke out against the local government in North Cholla province, and Chŏn Pongjun (1853–1895) organized a Tonghak army, overwhelmingly defeat‑ ing the government army. Alarmed by this defeat, the Chosŏn court asked China, ruled at that time by the Qing dynasty, for military reinforcements. The Japanese government took the opportunity to invade Korea, claim‑ ing that it had sovereignty there, thus beginning the Sino‑Japanese War (1894–1895). The Qing army was defeated by the Japanese forces, and the Chosŏn kingdom was dissolved, to be succeeded by the Taehan dynasty (1897–1910).5 Now threatened by the Japanese presence in Korea, the new Taehan court turned to Russia for help. But the Russian presence Introduction / 3 in Korea led only to the Russo‑Japanese War...