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Chapter 1. Race, Ethnicity, and Place in a Changing America: A Perspective
- State University of New York Press
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C Ch ha ap pt te er r 1 1 Race, Ethnicity, and Place in a Changing America: A Perspective JOHN W. FRAZIER PERSISTENCE AND CHANGE IN AMERICAN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY Culture, and the human geography it produces, persists over a long time period. However, culture changes slowly, as does the visible landscape it produces and the ethnic meanings imbued by the group that shapes it. That many examples of persistent and new cultural landscapes exist in the United States is not surprising given the major technological, demographic, and economic changes in American society since World War II (WWII). America emerged from WWII as one of two superpowers, developed and embraced technology that took Americans to the moon, created an electronics revolution that greatly modified the ways that Americans work and live, and built a globally unique interstate highway system, new housing stock, millions of additional automobiles, and otherwise increased its production to meet the challenge of nearly doubling its population between 1950 and 2000. The post-WWII baby boom and massive immigration fueled population growth and modified American society in important ways, creating different needs and growing aspirations. A larger African American middle class also emerged during this post-war period. Leadership in a growing global economy enabled unprecedented economic growth that supported these changes. Some less positive changes occurred during this period as America repositioned itself in global affairs, while experiencing great domestic and global economic, social and political challenges. America fought and lost a war in Vietnam, experienced an energy crisis, and suffered through double-digit inflation and severe economic recession, which contributed to a more conservative mood in Washington, D.C. For many people of color, economic and social disparities with whites were magnified between large inner cities and their surrounding communities . The human geography of the U.S. was modified and reflected some of these major changes. Perhaps the biggest of the geographic changes was the rapid consumption of rural lands, their transformation into thousands of new small communities independent of their nearby large cities, and the relocation of much of the white middle class and economic activities to emerging suburbs. While suburbanization had begun prior to WWII, it intensified in the post-war era and made America a commuting nation dependent on the automobile and foreign oil. While undeniable gains were made by African Americans, suburbanization also increased racial segregation and literally pushed the worlds of blacks and whites farther apart. Americans witnessed the remainder of the Great Migration until 1970, which brought millions of additional African Americans to northern and western cities and, when the economy changed, left millions jobless. Racial strife increased. One of the more obvious results of these culturally-based geographic patterns in American cities has been the unequal distribution of resources that created and concentrated poverty and caused the deterioration of neighborhoods and living conditions. This was true in the early industrial cities, where immigrants were segregated into high-risk ethnic neighborhoods, such as the tenements of New York City or the housing adjacent to the Chicago rail yards and garbage dumps that killed many children. Inner cities since 1950 are no different. Poverty and the risks of infant mortality remain high, despite the national economy being second to none in the world. Poverty begets the crime 2 John W. Frazier and the drug cultures, which add to the ills of poor living environments, especially those containing American minorities. In stark contrast to the outer cities of large, old metropolitan areas, inner cities disproportionately contain areas of poor housing, persistent unemployment, low wages, and a declining tax base. American ghettos persist as landscapes of fear and despair that encompass horrendous conditions, despite a half-century of national growth and prosperity. Typically invisible to middle-America, these conditions became more apparent when Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans in 2005. Hundreds of thousands of residents evacuated, but the very poor, predominantly black, inner-city residents who lacked resources and access to transportation were left behind to experience one of America’s most devastating natural disasters and its aftermath. The conditions and racial distribution of New Orleans is typical of many other American cities, including Detroit, Milwaukee, Chicago , Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester and others, that experienced ghetto formation generations ago. America’s outer suburbs are the antithesis of such conditions, and represent the relatively new, prosperous and spreading American landscapes. In short, the early industrial cities with sharp class distinctions and contrasting living conditions also provided the basis for the suburbanization of industry, commerce...