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9 1 Court Culture in the Late Eastern Han The Case of the Hongdu Gate School David R. Knechtges On 15 March 178, Emperor Ling 靈 (r. 168–189), the second to the last ruler of the Eastern, or Later Han dynasty (25–220),1 established a new school in the imperial court.2 Because it was located inside the Hongdu men 鴻都門 (Grand Capital Gate) of one of the imperial palaces,3 this new school was called the Hongdu Gate School (Hongdu men xue 鴻都門學). The founding of this school was quite controversial at the time, and the controversy over it provides some insight into the composition of court culture of the late Eastern Han dynasty. Most of the information about the Hongdu Gate School comes from petitions presented to Emperor Ling by three scholar-officials who were critical of the school and even requested to have it abolished. The three scholars were all prominent members of the court. The first was Cai Yong 蔡邕 (132/133–192), who came from a prominent family in Chenliu 陳留 (modern Chenliu, Henan).4 He was an expert in astronomy, mathematics, music, classical scholarship, and calligraphy, and was the most accomplished writer of stele inscriptions (beiwen 碑文) of his time. In 173, Cai Yong was appointed palace gentleman,5 which was an entry-level position for probationary officials.6 He worked as textual editor in the Dongguan 東觀 (Eastern Institute). Located in the Southern Palace, the Dongguan housed the main imperial library. It was here that important scholarly work, including the compilation of Han histories, was conducted.7 In 175, Cai Yong was appointed gentleman consultant.8 Although this was a low-ranking position that had no assigned duties, Cai Yong would have been able to offer advice when the emperor posed special questions to the court.9 In 177, Cai Yong submitted a long petition discussing “seven essential matters for governance.”10 The fifth matter he discusses is the 10 David R. Knechtges Hongdu Gate School and his objections to its criteria for selecting officials . In 178, Emperor Ling requested Cai to submit a confidential letter outlining the most serious problems of the time. Cai replied with a frank denunciation of the corruption and abuse of power by eunuchs and the consort clan.11 In his letter, Cai even dared to mention the names of the corrupt officials. Unfortunately for Cai, a court official leaked the contents of the letter to the palace officials. He soon found himself arrested and accused of “exacting vengeance in the name of public service, advising to harm prominent statesmen, and great disrespect.”12 He was sentenced to execution in the market place. After an official made a plea on Cai’s behalf, and the emperor read Cai Yong’s moving letter of self-defense, he sentenced Cai to permanent exile as a convict laborer in Shuofang 朔方 (modern Inner Mongolia). Although Emperor Ling granted Cai Yong a pardon, for the next ten years (179–189) he lived in reclusion, probably in the southeast coastal area.13 The second critic of the Hongdu Gate School was Yang Ci 楊賜 (d. 185).14 Yang came from the distinguished Yang clan of Huayin 華陰 in Hongnong 弘農 (southeast of modern Huayin, Shaanxi). His grandfather and father were scholars who specialized in the Ouyang 歐陽 version of the Shang shu 尚書 (Book of Documents).15 When the young Emperor Ling took the throne in 168, Yang Ci was selected to lecture on this text in the imperial palace.16 By the early 170s, Yang had been promoted to superintendent of the imperial household, a relatively high position charged with providing security and advice to the emperor.17 In 172, Yang presented Emperor Ling a sealed petition in which he urged him to curb the power of the consort clan and eunuchs.18 In December 176, Yang Ci was promoted to minister over the masses, which was one of the three top ministerial posts.19 It was at this time that Emperor Ling had begun to appoint officials without regard for the proper sequence of selection and promotion. Yang Ci presented him with a petition objecting to this practice.20 Yang Ci was dismissed from office in February 178 for recommending members of the anti-eunuch faction for appointment to court positions.21 However, Yang did not remain out of office long, for in this same year he was back at the court in the post of imperial household grandee. While in...

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