Notes
n o t e s Chapter 1 • Commercialization, College Sports, and the Athletic Trap 1. Marklein (2013). In a related story, Kiley (2013) presented data showing differences in median academic spending levels per student and median athletic spending per athlete in the major and mid-major athletic conferences. He presented other data indicating how Division I schools distributed athletic revenue, what their sources of athletic revenue were, and how much they depended on institutional subsidies for athletics. Sports insiders, such as a former Ivy League director, have warned about the unsustainability of an economic model dependent on institutional subsidies, especially during periods of economic austerity (see Wolverton 2013). 2. College refers to the institutions of colleges and universities, except when explicitly noted otherwise. Similarly, college sports, college sport, intercollegiate athletics, college athletics, and simply athletics are generally used interchangeably, except when explicitly noted otherwise. 3. Troop (2013). 4. Bok (2003, preface). 5. See Cornwell (2011) for a British perspective of this uniqueness. 6. See Betts (1974) and R. A. Smith (1990) for more historical details about the first century of U.S. college sports. 7. Deford (2005). 8. Bok (2003, p. 35). 9. This brief overview of early college sports history is largely based on Betts (1974, pp. 101–105, 211–218, 346–352) and was briefly summarized by Nixon (1984, pp. 106–110; 2008, pp. 252–254). 10. See Pettegrew’s (2007) analysis of how playing aggressive sports such as college football helped privileged young men learn about hypermasculine culture in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 11. See Rooney (1980, ch. 2). 12. Bok (2003, preface). 13. Rooney (1980, p. 14). 14. Bok (2003, p. 37). 15. Nixon (1984, p. 107; 2008, pp. 253–254). 172 Notes to Pages 5–16 16. Rooney (1980, p. 15). 17. Clotfelter (2011, p. 57). 18. Sack and Staurowsky (1998, p. 20). 19. Thelin (1994) and R. A. Smith (2010) document cycles of scandals and reform efforts in the history of college sports. 20. Bok (2003, p. 51). 21. See research presented by Clotfelter (2011, pp. 48–50). 22. A possible exception is the faculty athletics representative (FAR). The FAR is a faculty member at an NCAA member institution. The FAR is a link between academics and the athletic department and represents the institution at conference and NCAA-sponsored meetings . Specific duties of FARs vary across institutions. In general, a primary responsibility is to try to assure that academic integrity and the welfare of the student-athlete are protected and that the collegiate model is not overshadowed by the commercial model of athletics. More information can be found at the website for the FAR Association (FARA), www.farawebsite.org. 23. Data are from the 2011 NCAA Football Records website fs.ncaa.org for “Added and Discontinued Programs” and from National Football Foundation (2011). 24. NAIA refers the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. Its membership is much smaller than the NCAA, it sponsors fewer championships and is much less commercialized , and its members tend to be small colleges and universities. 25. The Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) level of the NCAA is often referred to as the “mid-major” level, and its football teams compete in a national postseason championship tournament. The highest and most commercialized level of college sports is the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). A competition in bowl games organized by the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) determines the national champion at this level. 26. See National Football Foundation (2011). 27. Chancellor is the name for president in the University of North Carolina system. 28. National Football Foundation (2011). 29. Edwards (1973). 30. Duderstadt (2000a, 2000b). 31. NCAA (2006). 32. Bauerlein (2010). 33. Women’s college basketball is also a big-time sport on some campuses in its media connections, support from corporate sponsors, and escalating pay of top coaches. However , recent evidence reported by Berkowitz and Upton (2011a) revealed that even the most prominent women’s basketball programs generate deficits, which are exacerbated by the high salaries of their coaches. These programs are not able to produce the revenue of the big-time men’s programs. 34. Critics of Title IX have claimed that Title IX has been the cause of cuts in non-revenue men’s sports. Others have counterargued that blaming Title IX for these cuts is misguided. They have contended that the primary reason for the cuts has been the drain on resources from the increasing costs of football and men’s basketball in more commercialized athletic programs...
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