American National Security

3. The Evolution of American National Security Policy

3 The Evolution of American National Security Policy National security strategy and military structure are shaped by the interactions of a number of influences, many of which defy precise identification. However, there are three principal categories of variables through which the evolution of strategy and military structure can largely be traced. They are international political and military developments, domestic priorities, and technological advancements . This chapter follows these variables through the evolution of national security policy since World War II, helping to reveal patterns of continuity and change. A sound appreciation of today’s prospects and challenges must take into account this history, as it goes far in explaining today’s national security policy process and the capabilities and limitations of current U.S. military structure. Before proceeding, a brief clarification of terms is necessary. As used here, the term strategy refers to an “idea or set of ideas for employing the instruments of national power in a synchronized and integrated fashion to achieve theater, national, and/or multinational objectives.”1 A national security strategy provides the conceptual framework within which a state pursues its security. Military structure, in contrast, refers to the size, composition, disposition, and capabilities of the armed forces. In an ideal situation, military structure would provide national policy makers with capabilities optimized to support the achievement of their strategic vision . The term national policy is used to refer to “a broad course of action or statements of guidance adopted by the government at the national level in pursuit of national objectives.”2 Policy can therefore relate to either matters of strategy or matters of structure, depending on the issues at hand. 41 42 American National Security The National Security Environment International Political and Military Developments. The international environment is an important and constantly changing influence on U.S. policy. U.S. strategy is largely a response to perceived threats to American interests and objectives that exist in the international arena. The United States is secure to the extent that it is not in danger of having to sacrifice core values, such as national independence or territorial integrity, if it wishes to avoid war and to the extent that it is able to protect those values if war breaks out.3 The perception of international threats to U.S. core values and interests is the basis for the formulation and execution of national security strategy. One important characteristic of the international environment is the presence or absence of alliances. The defense efforts of friendly and allied states help to de- fine U.S. security problems and the type and size of the U.S. effort required. The capability of the United States to pursue national security objectives is also conditioned by the impact of nonaligned states or nonstate actors. (For more on the role of nonstate actors in the international system, see Chapter 25.) Domestic Politics. A nation’s security policy is also heavily influenced by domestic politics. At a minimum, the internal environment determines the amount of effort that a society will devote to foreign and defense policy.4 Domestic goals have a great impact on the development of a state’s security policy and its allocation of resources. In the United States, the impact of domestic politics is seen most directly in the budgetary process, but it is also felt in such related areas as military manpower policy. Defense budgets and programs may not determine strategy, but national security options are heavily conditioned by the nature and extent of the resources available. Domestic (and international) media organizations also play important roles in shaping U.S. national security policy. The tremendously varied media sources currently available toAmericans provide continuous access to information and images from throughout the world. Although members of the media do not make national security policy, they can influence the agenda and frame issues for debate. Technological Change. The impact of technological advance upon security concerns and calculations is enormous. One need only look at the carnage of World War I to see the results of policy not keeping pace with technology. A century of relative peace in Europe had left military strategy and tactics largely as they were at the time of the Congress of Vienna, yet there had been a century of unparalleled technological advancement between 1815 and 1914. The military plans of 1914 simply were not adequate for the proper employment of existing technological capabilities, and the bloody stalemate that developed on the Western...