Cannibal Encounters: Europeans and Island Caribs, 1492–1763

ONE: First Impressions: Europeans and Island Caribs in the Precolonial Era, 1492–1623

CHAPTER ONE First Impressions: Europeans and Island Caribs in the Precolonial Era, 1492-1623 FOR MORE THAN a century before the English and French colonized the Carib-dominated Lesser Antilles, Europeans possessed significant information —and misinformation—about these "cannibals." In Europe, the literary elite became familiar with Hispanic tales of horror about fierce man-eating opponents of European imperialism. To be sure, French and English readers probably responded somewhat differently to the Spanish accounts, in part due to extensive and generally friendly French contacts with another "cannibal" people, the Tupinambas of Brazil. During the final decades of the precolonial era, less learned northern European merchants , sailors, and soldiers of fortune established growing contacts with the Island Caribs. Less familiar with Hispanic stereotypes, these adventurers conducted predominantly civil trade relations with aboriginal populations increasingly dependent on European ironware and spirits. Although these peaceable exchanges in no way altered the negative images of metropolitan intellectuals, they created connections that would later facilitate French, English, and Dutch occupation of the Lesser Antilles. For most of the sixteenth century, however, Island Caribs had to deal with a most difficult European people, the Spaniards. Until at least the 15305, Caribs persistently fought Spanish occupation of eastern Puerto Rico while attempting to defend their islands against slave raids, punitive expeditions, and campaigns of conquest. However, over time both sides found it useful to establish fragile periods of entente during which Spanish fleetscould victualin peace at Dominica and Island Caribs could obtain the iron goods—axes, knives, manioc griddles, iron pots—they so ardently desired. Nevertheless, after the Spaniards had occupied parts of Trinidad in the 15705 and supplied the Arawak enemies of allCaribs, war once more became the norm of this relationship. Fortunately for the Caribs, increasing numbers of Spain's enemies—Dutch, French, English—appeared in the Lesser Antilles, and these merchant-pirates provided alternatesources of European technology. In the short run, the abolition of the Spanish monopoly must have benefited the Island Caribs; in the long run, these northern Europeans came and stayed. 13 Marco Coronelli's 1688 map of the Lesser Antilles. Near the island of Dominica is the caption, "where live the greatest warriors of America, the anthropophagous Caribs." The Precolonial Era 15 IRONICALLY, BEFORE EUROPEANS actually encountered them, Island Caribs already possessed a reputation as blood-thirsty man-eaters. The marvelously fertile imagination of Christopher Columbus created the myth of "Carib cannibalism."1 On his first voyage, the admiral understood from Tamo Arawaks of Hispaniola (or so he thought that's what their sign language and facial grimaces meant) that their feared enemies (the "caniba" or "carib") inhabited islands to the east.2 His initial description of these "cannibals" as "men with one eye, and others with dogs' noses" obviously reflected inherited classical and medieval notions about anthropophagi inhabiting the far ends of the earth,3 especially those of the popular late medieval writer John Mandeville. Still, asPeter Hulme points out, Columbus initially was skeptical of Tamo claims because he believed it possible that these "caniba" were soldiers of the Great Khan (canin Spanish).4 By the conclusion of his wanderings in Caribbean waters, however, Columbus had persuaded himself that Island Caribs were indeed fierce man-eaters and thus subject to enslavement. Although he admitted that he knew few Indian words, he facilely and mistakenly assumed that the first non-Tamo to offer resistance to his incursions was a "Carib."5 Columbus also came to accept the Tamo-inspired idea that the "cannibal" islands contained much gold, so it isnot surprising to learn that the Lesser Antilles were the initial goal of his second voyage (1493). Columbus intended to investigate reports of gold there and to enslave any "cannibals" he could catch.6 After cruising about Dominica, he sent a landing party ashore at Guadeloupe, fully expecting a hostile reception. No "Caribs" were found in the village, but their female slaves "confirmed," by sign language presumably , that their masters were indeed ferociousman-eaters. The landing party retrieved four or five human bones. Not unaware of the Carib—and Tamo—practice of burning dead bodies and preserving bones of kin, Columbus nevertheless concluded that Tamo accusations were accurate.7 In a much publicized letter about this episode, expedition participant and "eyewitness" Dr. Chanca expressed certainty about the anthropophagy of these aborigines and described in sensational detail their culinary practices.8 All too soon, the very words Carib and cannibal became...