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L i s T o f i L L u s T r a T i o n s figures Figure 2.1: Average annual royal revenues from Peru, by decade, pesos 29 Figure 2.2: Average annual return on Panama Railroad stock, 1853–80 47 Figure 2.3: Panama Railroad stock price, 1852–81 48 Figure 3.1: The Pan-American Exposition logo 74 Figure 4.1: Average Silver Roll wages per hour, cents (U.S.) 114 Figure 4.2: Annual disease mortality rates among canal employees, by race, 1906–32 119 Figure 4.3: Infant mortality in Panama City and the Canal Zone, by race, 1914–46 120 Figure 4.4: Barbados sugar exports, 1880–1940 135 Figure 5.1: Transportation freight rates, constant 1925 dollars per ton 143 Figure 5.2: Social rates of return from the Panama Canal, 1921–37 154 Figure 5.3: Elasticity-adjusted social rates of return from the Panama Canal, 1921–37 156 Figure 5.4: Elasticity-adjusted social rates of return from the Panama Canal for the United States only, low estimates, 1921–37 159 Figure 5.5: Commercial Panama Canal transits, by nationality, 1915–42 165 Figure 5.6: War and Navy Department spending as percentage of GDP, 1895–1939 169 Figure 5.7: Elasticity-adjusted social rates of return from the Panama Canal for the United States only, low estimates, including defense costs, 1921–37 171 Figure 5.8: Average railroad freight hauls (miles) and average price per ton-mile (1925 cts.) 176 Figure 5.9: Railroad profits and fixed investment 177 Figure 5.10: Regional lumber production indexes, 1904–34, 1910 = 100 179 Figure 5.11: Crude oil price convergence, 1915–29 181 Figure 5.12: Regional gasoline prices, 1919–29 182 Figure 7.1: Military cargo transits through the Panama Canal, 1950–76 227 Figure 7.2: U.S. aid per capita, 2009 U.S. dollars 237 Figure 7.3: Real cost per ton-mile index, long-distance trucking and railroads, 1940 = 100 242 Figure 7.4: Panama Canal Company profit margins and growth in transits, 1952–76 249 Figure 7.5: Productivity, cost, and revenue measures, 1960 = 100 250 Figure 7.6: Transit accidents on the Panama Canal 252 Figure 7.7: Panama Canal tolls, 2009 dollars 253 Figure 8.1: Panama Canal margins and annual growth in interoceanic transits 306 Figure 8.2: Accident investigations on the Panama Canal 307 Figure 8.3: Panama Canal tons-per-transit and percentage of transits made by Panamax vessels 308 Figure 8.4: Panama Canal revenue per-ton and per-transit, 2009 dollars 309 Maps Map 2.1: Colonial Spanish routes across Panama, ca. 1600 25 Map 2.2: The Panama Railroad, 1862 45 Map 2.3: The Eads Ship Railway and the Tehuantepec Railroad 51 Map 3.1: The Nicaraguan proposal 70 Map 4.1: The Panama Canal at the beginning of 1914 104 Map 5.1: Major shipping routes with and without the Panama Canal 140 Map 9.1: The Panama Canal expansion project, 2007– 330 viii | LisT of iLLusTraTions ...

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