Education Reform and the Limits of Policy: Lessons from Michigan

Contents

v Contents Acknowledgments xi 1 Introduction 1 Concurrent National Reforms 2 2 A Fiscal and Educational System under Stress 9 Money and Schools: Facts, Myths, and Recent History in Public 10 School Finance Financing Michigan’s Public Schools 14 Summary and Conclusions 36 3 Holding Schools Accountable 43 1805–1900: The Territorial Years and Early Years of Statehood 45 1900–50: The First Half of the Twentieth Century 48 The Late 1950s to the Present 49 What Will the Future Bring? 78 4 Assessing the Academic Outcomes of Schooling 85 From Opposition to Acceptance 85 The National Assessment of Educational Progress: The Nation’s 90 Report Card The Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) 98 Comments on the MEAP Scores 110 Comments on the MME Scores 114 The ACT Exam 115 A Comparison of MEAP and NAEP Scores 116 A Final Observation 128 5 Charter Schools 131 Michigan Negotiates a Charter School Statute 134 Early Controversies 136 Student Achievement in Charter Schools: The National Perspective 141 Charter School Performance: Evidence from Michigan 144 Academic Outcomes 147 Summing Up 156 Looking Ahead: Some Outstanding Issues 157 Policy Equilibrium or Policy Stalemate? 160 vi 6 Schools of Choice 163 Rationale for Schools of Choice 165 Impacts of Open Enrollment Programs 167 Impacts in Michigan 171 Recent Trends 172 Schools of Choice: Added Value or Zero-Sum Game? 190 7 The Detroit Public Schools: A Failure of Policy and Politics 195 A Look Back: 1964–81 196 Continuing White Flight and Calls for Reform: The 1980s 205 and 1990s Assessing the Takeover Years 220 Going Forward: A Return to Mayoral Control? 226 What’s Next for DPS? 230 8 Reflections on the Limits of Policy 233 Equity 236 Adequacy 242 Efficiency 249 Choice 251 The Limits of Policy 257 References 261 Authors 275 Index 277 About the Institute 297 vii Figures 2.1 Foundation Growth, 1993–94 Pre–Proposal A Foundation Base 19 through 2008–09 2.2 Per Pupil Foundation Levels, 1994–95 through 2008–09 ($) 20 2.3 State K–12 Membership History 21 2.4 State and Local Revenue for School Operations, 1978–79 through 25 2007–08 ($) 2.5 Michigan Employment Levels, 1999–2009 (thousands) 26 2.6 U.S. and Michigan Unemployment Rates, 2000–09 (%) 27 2.7 Total Fund Balance as Percentage of Current Operating 29 Expenditures—Traditional Districts and Public School Academies 2.8 History of Deficit Districts 31 2.9 Michigan Public School Employees Retirement System School 32 District Contribution Rates, FY 1995–96 through FY 2008–09 2.10 Michigan Public School Employees Retirement System Costs 34 per Pupil, FY 1998–99 through FY 2007–08 5.1 Number of PSAs in Michigan 138 5.2 Enrollments in Michigan PSAs 139 5.3 Student Enrollment by Ethnicity, 2006–07 (%) 145 5.4 Grades 3–8 MEAP Proficiency by Age of PSA, Fall 2006 150 Percent Proficient 5.5 High School MME, Spring 2007, Percent Proficient 153 5.6 High School Graduation Rates, 2005–06 (percent of schools in 155 each category) 6.1 Benton Harbor Area Schools Enrollment History 184 6.2 Benton Harbor Enrollment Losses under Schools of Choice 184 2000–01 through 2010–11 6.3 Saginaw Public Schools Enrollment History, 1991–92 through 187 2007–08 7.1 DPS Enrollments, 1970 through 2009: Fall Counts 225 7.2 DPS Fund Balance History, 1970–2009 226 viii Tables 2.1 District Enrollment and Revenue Losses 23 3.1 Unified Accountability for Michigan Schools 73 3.2 Michigan Schools Making AYP, School Years 2001–02 through 74 2009–10 4.1 The Schedule of Upcoming NAEP Assessments 94 4.2 NAEP Results for Michigan, Percent Proficient, Available Years 96 1990–2009, Grades 4 and 8 4.3 Academic Achievement in Selected Subjects, NAEP Trial Urban 98 District Assessment, Percent Proficient, 2009 4.4 Annual MEAP and MME Assessments, Subjects and Grade Levels 108 4.5 Statewide MEAP and MME Results: Fall 2010—Grades 3–9, 109 Spring 2010—Grade 11, Percent Proficient 4.6 Statewide MEAP and MME Results, Grades 3–9 and 11, 111 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10, Percent Proficient 4.7 Statewide Grade 11 MME Results, Percent Proficient 115 4.8 Statewide ACT Results, Grade 11 116 4.9 Academic Achievement in Reading and Mathematics, Percent 117 Proficient, Grades 4 and 8 Averaged 4.10 Academic Achievement in Reading and Mathematics, Percent 117 Proficient, NAEP 2009...