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Chapter Six: Hunter-Gatherers and Courts
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49 TheWashoeshadverylittlereasontohopeforafavorableoutcome iftheirattempttohaltclimbingatCaveRockwastakenintothe courtsystem.Priortothelastdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,noNative Americansacredsiteclaimhadeverbeenupheldinafederalcourt.While ChristiansitessuchasCatholicmissionsandtheNationalCathedralin Washington, D.C., gained protection as national monuments, Native sitescontinuedtobeexploited,developed,anddestroyed. Euro-AmericanshaveignoredNativepropertyrightsfromthetime ofearliestcontact.BecauseatfirsttheNativesthemselveshadnounderstanding of the American concept of landownership, the newcomers identified themas“hunter-gatherers”whohadatransitoryandimpermanent relationship with specific sites. European immigrants simply appropriatedthelandstheycoveted,eitherfailingtorecognizethesort ofcommunalownershiptheIndianspracticedorplacingnovalueonit.1 InChiefJusticeJohnMarshallissuedwhatwouldbecomealandmark rulingonthesubject.InthecaseofJohnsonv.M’Intosh,theCourt hadtodecideonthelegalownershipofapieceofland.Oneoftheparties tothesuithadpurchasedthelandfromIndians;theotherhadbeen given a patent of ownership for the land by the federal government. TheCourtruledinfavorofthelatter,writingthattheIndianshadnever ownedtheland,andthushadnorighttosellit.Marshallruledthatthe UnitedStates,asaChristiannation,hadinheritedfromEnglandtitleto allpropertyinNorthAmericapreviouslyunclaimedbyaWesternnation. Indianshadtherighttooccupylandbutcouldnotownit.SinceM’Intosh thecourtshaveconsistentlyfoundforstateinterests,whichhaveoften involved financial promotion, overNativeAmericanreligiousvalues.2 Courts base their findings on precedent, and tens of thousands of propertycasesdefinerecognizedpropertyrights.G.JonRoush,presis i x Hunter-GatherersandCourts 50 cave rock dentoftheWildernessSociety,termedsuchrulings“thecoveroflaw” whenheurgedCongressintoprotectsacredIndiansites.Inhis dissentagainstthemajorityrulinginLyngv.NorthwestIndianCemetery ProtectiveAssociationin,SupremeCourtJusticeWilliamJ.Brennan Jr. pointed out that rather than balancing the competing viewpoints ofWesterncultureandNativeAmericans,thecourtwasbothfinding against the Native peoples and establishing unassailable precedent for the future. “The Court,” he wrote, “has effectively bestowed on one partytothisconflicttheunilateralauthoritytoresolveallfuturedisputes initsfavor,subjectonlytotheCourt’stoothlessexhortationtobe ‘sensitive’toaffectedreligions.Inmyview,however,NativeAmericans deserve—and the Constitution demands—more than this.” Only two justicesjoinedinBrennan’sdissent.3 The courts’ reasoning has always centered on economic concerns andtheissueofthegovernment’scontroloffederallands.GlenCanyon Dam,builtintocreateLakePowell,floodedaNavajoprayersite. Afterthedamwasfinished,theBureauofReclamationraisedthewater levelbehindituntilthewaterenteredBridgeCanyon,anotherimportant religiousandculturalfeature.Thehigherwaterlevelgavetourists easieraccesstothetribe’ssacredRainbowBridge.EarliertheParkService hadlicensedboattours;nowitpromotedotheractivitiesaroundthe bridge.WhentheCourtfinallyheardthetribe’sappealin,itfound forthefederallandmanagersdespiteitsfavorableviewoftheNavajos’ religiousarguments.Theinterestsofthetribesimplydidnotmeasure upwhenweighedagainsttheeconomicprosperityproducedbyGlen CanyonDam.4 NativeAmericanreligioussitesencompasslandsusedforceremonies, prayer, vision quests, gravesites, and places such as Cave Rock where shamansworkwithpower.5Thefactthattherearetensofthousandsof thesesitesandthattheyincludevastexpansescontinuestocauseproblems inacknowledgingandpreservingthem.Butevenwhenonlyasmall propertyisatstake,thefederalgovernmenttendsnottogiveupcontrol. Thegovernmentdetermineswhetheranareashouldbeopentothepublic ,opentodevelopment,orprotectedasahistoricsite. Government interests that have been awarded precedence over Native American religious concerns include logging, road building, flood control, navigation, electric power generation, the construction of an observatory, and recreational uses including skiing. In the case [3.141.100.120] Project MUSE (2024-04-24 08:40 GMT...