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notes    71 Notes 1. Scores of scholars have voiced dissatisfaction with the paucity of available informationontheSomalisintheareasof archeology, language, ethnography, and anthropology. See Ahmed I. Samar, SocialistSomalia :RhetoricandReality(London : Institute for African Alternatives, 1980), 9; Lee V. Cassanelli, The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900 (Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 4; David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar , Somalia: Nation in Search of a State (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987), 4. Somaale, the incorrect spelling of Soomaale—propagated by non-Somalispeaking scholars prior to introduction of the Somali orthography and wrongly accepted by Somali-speaking scholars— is the etymological origin of Soomaali in the Somali language or Somali in English (others also say the word is Samaale). The spelling I prefer to use is Soomaale. Soomaale was the mythical patriarchal figure who, it has been said, fathered four out of the six largest Somali clans. Hence Daarood, Isaaq, Dir, and Hawiye of Soomaale descendants are today called Somalis. The other two are Mirifle and Digil of Rahanwayn. This ancestral claim has been lent credibility by I. M. Lewis: Understanding Somalia and Somaliland Culture, History, Society (London: Hurst & Co, 2008). 2.Abdi Ismail Samatar and Ahmed I. Samatar, “Somalis as Africa’s First Democracy : Premier Abdirizak H. Hussein and President Aden A. Osman,” Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies 2.1 (2002): 1–64; Samar, Socialist Somalia, 60. 3. Ismail Ali Ismail. Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia (Bloomington , IN: Trafford Publishing, 2010), 148. 4. Samatar and Samatar, “Somalis as Africa’s First Democracy”; Theodore M. Vestal,TheLionofJudahintheNewWorld: Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and the Shaping of Americans’ Attitudes Toward Africa (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011), 154; Ahmed Ismail Yusuf, unpublished paper, 1997. 5. David D. Laitin, Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 93. 6. Helen Chapin Metz, Somalia: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1993),216;DonnaR.Jackson,JimmyCarter and the Horn of Africa: Cold War Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia (Jefferson, NC:­McFarland & Co, 2007). 7. Jeffrey Alan Lefebvre, Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953–1991 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991). 8. Samar, Socialist Somalia, 138; Anna Simon, Networks of Dissolution: Somalia Undone (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 49. 9. Dietrich Jung, Shadow Globalization , Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A PoliticalEconomyofIntra-StateWar(London : Routledge, 2003), 167; International Congress of Somali Studies, Jörg Janzen , and Stella von Vitzthum, What Are 72    notes Somalia’s Development Perspectives? Science between Resignation and Hope? Proceedings of the 6th SSIA Congress, Berlin 6–9 December 1996. Berlin: Das Arabische Buch, 2001; Nuruddin Farah, Yesterday, Tomorrow: Voices from the Somali Diaspora (London: Cassell, 2000); Belachew Gebrewold-Tochalo,AnatomyofViolence: Understanding the Systems of Conflict and Violence in Africa (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate , 2009), 133; Kidane Mengisteab and Cyril K. Daddieh, State Building and Democratization in Africa: Faith, Hope, and Realities(Westport,CT:Praeger,1990). 10. Alice Bettis Hashim, The Fallen State: Dissonance, Dictatorship, and Death inSomalia(Lanham,MD:UniversityPress of America, 1997), 31; Hussein Ali Dualeh, Search for a New Somali Identity (Nairobi: H. A. Dualeh, 2002); Donald A. Sylvan and James F. Voss, Problem Representation in Foreign Policy Decision Making (Cambridge :CambridgeUniversityPress,1998), 126; Anuradha Kumar, Human Rights: Global Perspectives (New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2002); Human Rights Watch, Hostile Shores: Abuse and Refoulement of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Yemen (New York: Theorganization,2009). 11. Hashii Abdinur Nur, Weapons and Clan Politics in Somalia (Mogadishu?: 1996); Aidan Hartley, The Zanzibar Chest: A Story of Life, Love, and Death in Foreign Lands(NewYork:AtlanticMonthlyPress, 2003), 178. 12. Gary W. Boyd, McGuire Air Force Base (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2003), 8. 13. Jonathan Stevenson, Losing Mogadishu : Testing U.S. Policy in Somalia (Annapolis , MD: Naval Institute Press, 1995); Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001), 47. 14. Mark Bowden, Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999); Jerry Bruckheimer , et al., Black Hawk Down (Culver City, CA: Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment , 2002). 15.C. M. A. Horst, Money and Mobility : Transnational Livelihood Strategies of the Somali Diaspora, Global Migration Perspectives 9 (Global Commission on International Migration, 2004), ­ available: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country ,,GCIM,,SOM,,42ce49684,0.html. 16. Judish Gardner and Judy ElBushra , Somalia—The Untold Story: The War Through the Eyes of Somali Women (London: CIIR, 2004), 66. 17. Farah, Yesterday, Tomorrow, 2, 5. 18. Abdikadir Jama...

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