Ojibwe in Minnesota

Notes

n o tes  87 Notes 1.There are a few scattered references to“powwow”as old as the late nineteenth century, but they are actually references to ceremonial Big Drum dances, rather than powwows as they are performed and understood today. Modern powwow culture first emerged around World War II, and its current contest configurations developed in the 1970s. 2.Ojibwe emergence as a distinct people is derived from linguistic analysis, archaeological evidence, and oral history. See William Warren, History of the Ojibway People (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press [hereafter, mhs Press], 1984); George Copway, Th Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation (London: Charles Gilpin, 1850); Johann Georg Kohl, Kitchi-Gami: Life among the Lake Superior Ojibway (St. Paul:mhs Press,1985).Informationonthe evolution of the Ojibwe language, dialect variance, and its relationship to other Algonquian languages is based on Anton Treuer,Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales & Oral Histories (St. Paul: mhs Press, 2001);John D. Nichols and Earl Nyholm, AConciseDictionaryof MinnesotaOjibwe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); J. Randolph Valentine, NishnaabemwinReferenceGrammar (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,2001). 3.For further reading on the meaning of the term Ojibwe, see Theresa M. Schenck, Th Voice of the Crane Echoes Afar: The Sociopolitical Organization of theLakeSuperiorOjibwa,1640–1855(New York: Garland, 1997), 22; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 36–37;George Copway, Traditional History, 30. Bwaa is the correct double-vowel orthography equivalent to bwa, as it appears in the Warren orthography. The morphological componentsof ozhibii’ige(“hewrites”)are known to everyday speakers of Ojibwe. However,this word is similarly glossed in Nichols and Nyholm,Concise Dictionary. 4.The Ojibwe clan system is well documented in oral histories and anthropological sketches of the Ojibwe. See especially , Warren, History of the Ojibway People; Copway, Traditional History.Also based on interviews: Archie Mosay, 1992; Thomas J.Stillday,1995;Anna Gibbs,1995; James Clark,1994. Intraclan marriage was the only internal domestic action punishable by death. Rarely,cases of murder were avenged,but as a matter of consistent tribal custom, this taboo was the strongest.Warfare and other intertribal altercations had their own rules. Edward Benton-Banai, The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway (Hayward,WI: Indian Country Communications ,1988),74–78;Warren,History of the Ojibway People, 50–52. 5.Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 50–52. The selection of chiefs by election rather than hereditary right in newly settled areas is well attested in primary source documents. See especially Copway, Traditional History, 140. See also MentorL.Williams,SchoolcraftsNarrative Journalof Travels(EastLansing:Michigan State University Press, [1951] 1992), 486. Therearenowmorethantwentyclansrepresented at Red Lake. The tribal fl g still 88  n o tes onlydisplaystheoriginalclansthatsettled there.Interview,EugeneStillday,2009. 6.Ojibwe people universally attest to the great respect given to elders in their culture, an attitude that is also built right intothelanguage.TheOjibwewordforold woman,mindimooye, literally means“one whoholdsthingstogether,”describingthe role of the family matriarch.The word for old man, akiwenzii, literally means“earth caretaker.”Thebasicwordsforelder,gichianishinaabe and gichi-aya’aa, literally mean“great being.”For a great theoretical discussion of age in Ojibwe culture, see Michael D. McNally, Honoring Elders: Aging, Authority, and Ojibwe Religion (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009). 7.Thomas Vennum Jr.,Wild Rice and the Ojibway People (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1988);Benton-Banai,Mishomis Book. 8.Charles C. Mann, 1491:New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Knopf, 2005); Alvin Josephy Jr., 500 Nations: An Illustrated History of North American Indians (New York: AlfredA .Knopf,1994);Jack Leustig,500 Nations , video documentary (Los Angeles: Warner HomeVideo,1995).Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Th Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 73 vols. (New York: Pageant Book Company,1959). 9.Calvin Martin,Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade (LosAngeles:University of California Press,1982). 10.This dynamic is especially well reported in Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991).Virgil J.Vogel, Indian Names in Michigan (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1986); Charles L. Cutler, O Brave New Words: Native American Loanwords in Current English (Norman: Universityof OklahomaPress,1992);WarrenUpham ,MinnesotaGeographicNames, 3rd ed.(St.Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001).Sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980). Tribal Membership Roll, Minnesota Chippewa Tribe.There are also many people with the last name French (spelled in English), and the...