Jewish Traditions: A JPS Guide

Animals

Animals Cruelty to Animals (Myyf!c- yl2i7b<- ri-x-) The prohibition against cruelty to animals (tza’ar ba’alei hayim; lit., “pain of living things”) is a fundamental Jewish value, based on the concept that human beings are responsible for all God’s creatures. Not only is cruelty to animals forbidden, it is a positive commandment for human beings to show compassion and mercy to them. The eating of meat was permitted only after the Flood (Gen. 9:3), and then only in moderation and tightly regulated by the dietary laws. One of the seven Noahide Laws, which apply to all humanity, is the prohibition against eating the flesh of a living animal, or blood drawn from it (Sanh. 56a–b). Although the Rabbis agreed that human needs took priority, they opposed the cruelty inherent in the hunting of animals, even for a living . Indeed, the Talmud prohibits associating with hunters, based on the verse in Psalms (1:1), “Happy is the man who does not stand in the way of sinners, nor sit in the seat of the scornful”1 (Av. Zar. 18b). In the 18th century, Rabbi Ezekiel Landau noted that the only biblical hunters were fierce characters such as Nimrod and Esau, and thus this activity is not appropriate for the children of the Patriarchs. He said that when animals are killed merely for the pleasure of hunting, it is cruelty. This antipathy toward cruelty to animals is strikingly illustrated in the rabbinic prohibition against reciting the festive benediction Shehecheyanu (see p. 479) before the act of ritual slaughter or before putting on new leather shoes, because human enjoyment is achieved only through the death of the animal. As explicitly stated in the Ten Commandments, animals as well as human beings must be allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10; Deut. 5:14). For Rashi, this meant that animals must be free to wander 705 about, take in their surroundings, and enjoy the beauty of nature. Similarly, animals are to be provided for during the sabbatical year, when the fields lie fallow and whatever grows in them is to be enjoyed by “the poor of your people ... and the beast of the field” (Lev. 25:6–7).2 The angel rebuked Balaam for smiting his donkey (Num. 22:32; see p. 716), which Maimonides considered as the proof text that forbids causing pain to any animal,3 and God Himself admonished Jonah (4:11), “And should not I care about Nineveh, that great city, in which there are more than 120,000 persons ... and many beasts as well!” In the Book of Psalms, God is praised as the One whose “mercy is upon all His works” (Ps. 145:9),4 “feeding every creature to its heart’s content” (Ps. 145:16), and who “gives the beasts their food” (Ps. 147:9). Based on the verse, “I will also provide grass in the fields for your cattle, and [then] you shall eat and be satisfied” (Deut. 11:15),5 the Rabbis decided that a person is forbidden to eat before feeding his animal because the animal is mentioned first (Ber. 40a).6 Many biblical leaders of Israel were trained for their tasks by being shepherds. Moses was “keeping the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law,” when God appeared to him at the Burning Bush (Exod. 3:1–6). Similarly, David was considered worthy of leading the Jewish people by virtue of the tender love he showed to the sheep under his care.7 Several traditional stories record the compassion for animals demonstrated by major figures in Jewish history. When Rabbi Judah the Prince was studying Torah, a calf being taken to the slaughterhouse begged the sage to save him. “What can I do for you?” he shrugged. “For this you were created.” As punishment for his insensitivity, Rabbi Judah suffered from a toothache for 13 years. One day, a weasel ran past the sage’s daughter, who was about to kill it. Rabbi Judah admonished her to let the animal live, citing the verse from Psalms (145:9), “The Lord is good to all; and His mercy is upon all His works.” Because Rabbi Judah’s compassion prevented the suffering and death of the harmless animal, his toothache went away (BM 85a).8 One Yom Kippur evening, Rabbi Israel Salanter, the leader of the Musar movement in the 19th century, did not arrive at the synagogue in time to chant Kol Nidrei. Fearing that harm had come to their master, a search party was dispatched and eventually found the rabbi in the barn of a Christian neighbor. As Salanter explained to his relieved congregants , while walking to the synagogue he had seen one of his neighbor ’s calves, lost and tangled in the brush. Seeing that the animal was 706 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions confused and in pain, the rabbi freed it, comforted it, and then led it home. This act of mercy and compassion sufficed for Salanter’s prayers that evening.9 The Rabbis understood the following mitzvot as explicitly related to the prohibition against cruelty to animals. Shechitah (Kosher Slaughtering) Jewish ritual slaughtering strives to prevent unnecessary suffering to the animal. It must be performed by a skilled professional, with one continuous cut of a knife that is exceedingly sharp and without the slightest notch (Hul. 9a). This severs all of the great blood vessels of the neck so that the animal instantly loses all sensation. Because an animal may not be eaten unless it has been properly slaughtered, the technical requirements must be strictly observed. Working with Two Different Kinds of Animals The Bible explicitly states, “ You shall not plow with an ox and a donkey together” (Deut. 22:10). According to Rashi, this prohibition applied to the coupling of any two different species and to any activity (not only plowing). The ox and donkey differ greatly in temperament, size, and strength, and it would be cruel to the weaker animal to yoke them together.10 Muzzling an Animal as It Threshes The verse, “You shall not muzzle an ox while it is threshing” (Deut. 25:4), prohibits the farmer from preventing an animal from satisfying its appetite by eating of the produce with which it is working. This prohibition extends to all animals employed in any type of labor. As Sefer Ha-Hinnukh observes, this and other regulations forbidding cruelty to animals develop an attitude of kindness and compassion that human beings can use when interacting with each other.11 Mother and Its Young The commandments relating to the humane treatment of a mother and her young derive from the verses, “If ... you chance upon a bird’s nest ... Cruelty to Animals 707 and the mother [bird is] sitting over the fledglings or on the eggs, do not take the mother together with her young. Let the mother go, and take only the young” (Deut. 22:6–7) and “[But an ox or a sheep or a goat], you may not slaughter it and its offspring on the same day” (Lev. 22:28).12 Maimonides explained that one may not kill an animal and its young on the same day so that “people should be restrained and prevented from killing the two together in such a manner that the young is slain in the sight of the mother; for the pain of the animals in such circumstances is very great. There is no difference in this case between the pain of man and the pain of other living beings, since the love and the tenderness of the mother for her young ones is not produced by reasoning but by feeling, and this faculty exists not only in man but in most living things.”13 He added, “If the Law provides that such grief should not be caused to cattle and birds, how much more careful must we be that we should not cause grief to our fellow man.”14 According to Nachmanides, the purpose of this commandment was directed not toward the animal but toward humans, to purge them of callousness, cruelty, and savagery. For Abravanel, allowing the mother bird to live would encourage her to lay more eggs and thus preserve bird species for the long-term benefit of humanity.15 The reward for sparing the mother bird is so “that you may fare well and have a long life” (Deut. 22:7). This is strikingly similar to the effect of observing the Fifth Commandment honoring parents—“that you may long endure on the land that the Lord your God is assigning to you” (Exod. 20:12)16 —implying that God will treat human beings in accordance with how well they care for animals. Commenting on the Talmud, Rashi noted that if God gives long life and material success for fulfilling the simple mitzvah of sparing the mother bird, which requires neither intense physical effort nor financial loss, how much more is the divine reward for discharging commandments that are difficult to perform (Hul. 142a).17 Relieving an Animal of Its Burden “When you see the donkey of your enemy lying under its burden and would refrain from raising it, you must nevertheless raise it with him” (Exod. 23:5) commands a person to help unload a beast that has fallen under its burden in the field, even if it belongs to his or her enemy. 708 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions Indeed, if two individuals who hate each other work together and demonstrate their compassion for the animal, they might even overcome their mutual animosity and become friends (Tanh. Mishpatim 1).18 As previously noted, Maimonides maintained that not inflicting undue pain on an animal helps prevent a person from forming the habit of cruelty, thus decreasing the likelihood that he or she will inflict pain on others.19 He noted that unloading the burden from a laboring animal is permitted even on the Sabbath.20 Indeed, many acts otherwise forbidden on the Sabbath (such as asking a non-Jew to milk cows) are permitted when their purpose is to relieve an animal’s suffering. According to the Shulchan Arukh, one is also permitted to tend an animal’s painful wound, race animals around as a remedy for overeating, and help them escape from a pit or body of water into which they have fallen.21 Specific Animals A number of animals are mentioned in the Bible and Talmud. Some of these are discussed in the following sections, arranged in alphabetical order. Bear (bOd) Although generally harmless to humans, the Bible portrays the bear as a dangerous animal, especially the female of the species when robbed of her young. When David tried to convince Saul that he was strong enough to fight Goliath, he boasted that he would kill the enemy giant just as he had once single-handedly slain a bear and a lion threatening his flock (1 Sam. 17:34–37). David himself was later described as a hardened warrior and “savage as a she-bear in the wild, robbed of her cubs” (2 Sam. 17:8).1 Nevertheless, the author of Proverbs (17:12) deemed it better to “meet a bereaved she-bear [robbed of her cubs] than a fool with his nonsense” (Prov. 17:12).2 Later, the acts of a “wicked man ruling a people” was compared to “a prowling bear” (Prov. 28:15). As a cruel punishment, the prophet Elisha called down two female bears to attack the 42 children who had mocked him (2 Kings 2:24). However, the Talmud castigated this behavior, noting that Elisha was punished with sickness for having “incited the bears against the children” (Sanh. 107b).3 The bear later became a symbol of the powerful Persian Empire, Specific Animals 709 which Daniel (7:5) saw in a vision as “a beast, which was like a bear but raised on one side, and with three fangs in its mouth among its teeth.” The Rabbis extended this image to describe the Persians themselves, “who eat and drink like a bear, are fleshy [fat] like the bear, overgrown with hair like the bear, and are restless like a bear” (Kid. 72a). In folklore , the image of a bear looking for a honey tree represented the Jewish people searching for the sweetness of Torah, the “Tree of Life.”4 In Isaiah’s (11:7) prophetic vision of the peace accompanying the Messianic Age, “the cow and the bear shall graze, their young shall lie down together.” Bee (hr+obd$) Bees are plentiful in the Land of Israel, but during biblical times they were primarily wild insects that were especially noted for their ferocity in attack. The Psalmist (118:12) describes enemy nations that “beset me [Israel] like bees,” but they are defeated because the Jews trust in the Lord. As the Israelites prepared to enter the Promised Land after 40 years of wandering, Moses recounted the shameful incident of the evil report brought by the princes sent to spy out the land. When they learned that the punishment for their lack of faith in God was that all the adults would perish in the wilderness, the chastened people made an abortive attempt to forcibly enter the land despite the divine decree (Num. 14:40–45). Forty years later, Moses recalled, “the Amorites who lived in those hills came out against you like so many bees and chased you” (Deut. 1:44). However, the sages noted, Moses indirectly added some consolation to his harsh words. Rashi observed that just as a bee dies after stinging its victim, so the victorious Amorites were destroyed after defeating the Jews. Moreover, the absence of any mention of casualties indicates that the Jews were like most people stung by bees, suffering intense pain but not a fatal injury.5 The only biblical mention of bees in connection with honey is the verse, “And he [Samson] turned aside to look at the carcass of the lion, and he saw a swarm of bees in it, and honey” (Judg. 14:9).6 This refers to the fact that a few hours after the death of an animal, the scavengers (such as jackals and vultures) reduce the carcass to bone; after the skeleton has dried in the sun, bees find this an excellent place to start a new honeycomb.7 According to the Rabbis, the famous description of 710 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions the Land of Israel as “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Deut. 8:8) refers to date honey (see p. 673). Although bees are “unclean” insects, honey was permitted as food since it is not produced by the bee but rather merely sucked from flowers and stored in its body (Bek. 7b)(see p. 710). The Hebrew word for bee, “devorah,” probably derived from the root “daber” (to speak), referring to the constant humming noise of the insect . Deborah was the name of the judge and prophetess who led the Israelites to victory against the Canaanites (Judg. 4), as well as the name of Rebecca’s wet-nurse (Gen. 35:8).8 Camel (lm=g+) The camel is mentioned many times in the Bible. It served as a beast of burden and a mode of transportation. Camels were particularly common among desert people because the tough sponge-like substance covering their feet allows them to cross burning sand. This earned the camel the nickname “ship of the desert.”9 Ahardy breed, camels can go for several days without food and water. In the Bible, Rachel hid her father’s idols in the saddle of her camel (Gen. 31:34). A caravan of Ishmaelites with camels bearing spices brought Joseph down to Egypt (Gen. 37:25). The Torah explicitly prohibits eating camel meat (Lev. 11:4; Deut. 14:7). A large herd of camels was a measure of wealth (Job 1:3) and military power (Judg. 7:12). The Midianites outfitted their camels with decorative chains (Judg. 8:26). According to legend, a camel played a major role in selecting the burial place for Maimonides. The great medieval sage lived and died in Egypt but asked that he be buried in the Holy Land. His body was placed on a camel, which carried it on the long trek to the Land of Israel. Once it reached Tiberias, however, the camel stubbornly refused to go farther. Thus Maimonides was buried in a plot of ground chosen by the camel—which happened to be near the tomb of the revered talmudic scholar Yochanan ben Zakkai.10 Cattle (rq=b<=) In ancient times, cattle were the most important possession of nomadic people, including the Patriarchs. They reared cattle, which provided Specific Animals 711 them with milk, meat, and skins for clothing and shelter. Joseph told his brothers to inform Pharaoh that they “have been keepers of cattle from our youth even until now, both we, and our father” (Gen. 46:34).11 Cattle were used to thresh grain (Deut. 25:4) and as beasts of burden (1 Chron. 12:41). Cattle were not to be yoked to a plow together with a donkey (Deut. 22:10). In addition to the generic term “bakar,” the Bible employs specific words for cattle, depending on their age, sex, physical characteristics, and work performed. Among the animals extensively used for sacrifices were the par or ben-bakar (young bull) and shor (ox or bull). The infamous incident of the Egel ha-Zahav (Golden Calf), which was fashioned by Aaron while his brother was on Mount Sinai, led Moses to smash the first set of Tablets of the Law (Exod. 32). After the division of the monarchy, Jeroboam, ruler of the Northern Kingdom, placed golden calves in the temples he built in Beit El and Dan (1 Kings 12:28–29). When the victim of an unwitnessed murder is found lying in the open, the elders of the nearest town must slay a young heifer, similarly termed “eglah,” in an uncultivated valley with a stream (Deut. 21:1–4). The mysterious rite of the parah adumah (red heifer) produced the paradoxical situation in which its ashes purified people who had become ritually unclean through contact with a human corpse, yet made those who engaged in its preparation ritually impure (Num. 19:1–22). This is the quintessential example of a hok, a statute that has no obvious reason but is observed because of absolute obedience to a divine decree. In a midrashic parable discussing why the righteous suffer, Rabbi Eleazar explained: “A man had two cows, one strong and the other weak. Upon which does he put a burden? Upon the strong. So God does not try the wicked, for they could not endure it, but he tries the righteous” (Song R. 2:1).12 Chicken (logn$rt<-) Archeological discoveries have demonstrated that chickens were raised in the Land of Israel in late biblical times, probably arriving from India or Persia. In the Mishnah, the chicken is called “tarnegol” (feminine , tarnegolet), derived from a Sumerian word meaning “king bird.” 712 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions In modern times, the turkey is known as “tarnegol hodu” (lit., “chicken of India”). The rooster is called “gever” (also sechvi, see below), which is the modern Hebrew word for “man” and related to “gevurah” (strength). Based on a reference in Job (38:36), the Rabbis developed the blessing in the morning service thanking God for giving “the rooster [sechvi] intelligence to distinguish between day and night” (see p. 404). Not only does this express our gratitude for this method of being awakened from sleep—from the crowing of the rooster—it also is an indirect expression of thanks for the daily “restoration” of one’s hearing. According to Josephus, the early Rabbis disagreed as to whether the chicken was kosher. It was considered a ritually clean bird and permitted as food in the Galilee, whereas in Jerusalem the chicken was deemed unclean and was kept only as an ornamental fowl (together with the peacock). Therefore, when Jesus spoke of a hen “gathering her chicks under her wings,” he was referring to the barnyard fowl of his Nazareth childhood, while the cock that Peter heard crowing three times was probably a resident in someone’s private zoo.13 The Talmud considered the hen as the “best of birds” and its egg was used as a basic unit of volume for halakhic purposes (BM 86b). “It was the custom that when a bride and bridegroom were being escorted [to the marriage ceremony] a cock [symbol of procreation] and a hen were carried before them, as if to say ‘Be fruitful and multiply like chickens’” (Git. 57a). In answer to the perennial question— “Which came first, the chicken or the egg?”—the Talmud appears to side with the former: “All [the works] of Creation were brought into being with their full stature, their full capacities, and their full beauty” (RH 11a).14 On the day before Yom Kippur, a rooster (for a male) or a hen (for a female) was traditionally swung around the head three times in the ceremony of kaparos (lit., “atonements,” but in the sense of “ransom”; see p. 223) and then donated to the poor. This practice of symbolically transferring a person’s sins to the fowl was castigated as a superstitious pagan ritual by the Rabbis, but kaparos remained popular among the masses in Orthodox communities. Today, many people have substituted money for the rooster or hen and give the money to charity (see p. 537). Specific Animals 713 Deer (lyf+a-) and Gazelle (yb1x4) The deer (ayal) and gazelle (tzvi) are included among the seven species of wild animals that both chew the cud and have cloven hooves and thus are permitted as food (Deut 14:5). Hunting for wild game plays an important role in the story of Jacob and Esau. “Isaac favored Esau because he had a taste for game; but Rebekah favored Jacob” (Gen. 25:28), and thus the Patriarch asked his elder son to take “your gear, your quiver and bow, and go out into the open and hunt me some game [venison]” (Gen. 27:3) before giving him the birthright—which was “stolen” by Jacob with the help of his mother. The deer and gazelle are symbols of grace and speed. Jacob blessed his son Naphtali as a wild deer (ayalah) who “delivers beautiful sayings ” (Gen. 49:21).15 According to the Talmud, when Jacob died and his sons were preparing to bury him in the Cave of Machpelah, Esau tried to stop them by asserting that as the firstborn he had a prior claim to the last remaining gravesite. When Esau demanded, “Produce a document [of sale] for me!” the fleet Naphtali ran like a deer to Egypt and brought back the deed (Sot. 13a).16 In Pirkei Avot (5:23), the speed of the deer is invoked as one of the qualities needed “to do the will of your Father who is in Heaven.” In the popular Sabbath hymn Yedid Nefesh (Beloved of My Soul), the soul “runs like a deer” (ayal) to be near to God, so intense is its yearning for an intimate relationship with the Shekhinah.17 The Song of Songs depicts the gazelle as “he stands behind our wall, gazing through the window, peering through the lattice” (Song 2:9) and describes the lover with these words: “Your breasts are like two fawns, twins of a gazelle, browsing among the lilies” (Song 4:5). Although the epitome of speed (2 Sam. 2:18), the gazelle was hunted almost to extinction for its tasty meat. In modern Israel, the gazelle (along with the ibex, the only wild kosher ruminant that has survived in the land) is the symbol of the postal service.18 Dog (bl3k<3) In biblical times, the dog (kelev) was considered a potentially dangerous animal that was often trained to be vicious and might attack 714 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions passersby (Ps. 22:17). As Proverbs (26:17) observed, “A passerby who gets embroiled in someone else’s quarrel is like one who seizes a dog by its ears.” Dogs were described as ownerless animals that howled at night and prowled in desolate areas (Ps. 59:7,15), carnivores that were both scavengers and predators. “The dogs shall devour Jezebel in the field of Jezreel” (1 Kings 21:23) was the predicted fate of Ahab’s wicked queen. Rather than eating “flesh torn by beast in the field [i.e., nonkosher],” the Israelites were commanded to “cast it to the dogs” (Exod. 22:30). According to Rashi, as a reward for their remaining quiet on the night of the Exodus from Egypt (rather than emitting loud barks or howls that might have terrified and intimidated the escaping Israelites), God ordained that any food unfit for human consumption (treif) be given to the dogs.19 In biblical times, “dog” was a derogatory term that apparently was applied to a male prostitute who practiced immoral conduct as a religious rite. “You shall not bring the fee of a whore or the pay of a dog into the House of the Lord ... for both are abhorrent to the Lord your God” (Deut. 23:19)20 was interpreted to mean that no animal bought with money obtained in exchange for improper actions could be used for an offering on the altar, because it would be demeaning to God (Ibn Ezra).21 Nachmanides observed that although sinners frequently attempt to justify illicit activities by contributing some of the profits to charitable causes, this commandment clearly states that a person cannot purify such unlawful gains by using them for sacred purposes .22 The prohibition against gifts gained by immoral means also applies today to synagogues, houses of study, and other charitable Jewish institutions. A number of rabbinic stories tell of dogs who saved their masters from violence and death. One such narrative tells of a snake that injected venom into milk being prepared by a group of shepherds. The shepherds’ dog saw this happen and tried to warn them by barking. When they paid no attention to the barking, the dog drank the milk and died (PdRK 10:1). In another story, Rabbi Abbahu’s friend seated him next to a dog as a show of honor, because the dog had saved his wife from rape by biting the assailant’s testicles (PdRK 11:1). However, this same ferocity made the Rabbis wary of dogs. The Talmud ruled that, “one should not breed a dog unless it on a chain,” but Rabbi Specific Animals 715 Eleazer opposed any raising of dogs in the Land of Israel, declaring that "he who breeds dogs is like one who breeds swine" (BK 83a). However, this practice was permitted in a frontier town as long as the owner agreed to "keep it chained during the daytime and loose it only at night." One early sage even stated that a person should not live in a town "in which no horses neigh or dogs bark" (Pes. 113a). The Rabbis gave five criteria that indicated if a dog was rabid: "Its mouth is open, its saliva dripping, its ears flap, its tail is hanging between its thighs, [and] it walks on the edge of the road." Others stated that, "it also barks without its voice being heard." Proposed causes for rabies were "Witches are having their fun with it [the dog]" and "An evil spirit rests upon it" (Yoma 83b). Donkey (romc-) Although Jewish folklore often considered the donkey (hamor) the epitome of foolish or stubborn behavior, ancient Jewish sources regarded the animal as a symbol of patience and understanding. Issachar, who chose the life of the modest farmer, is likened by Jacob to a "strongboned donkey" who has "bent his shoulder to the burden and become a toiling serf" (Gen. 49:14–15).23 Although the plain meaning of the text and the description of his "pleasant country" seem to refer to agricultural endeavors, Rashi preferred the traditional rabbinic interpretation that this alludes to Issachar being a dedicated and accomplished student of Torah (1 Chron. 12:33), many of whose descendants were spiritual leaders of the Jewish people.24 The most famous incident involving the animal is the story of the talking donkey of Balaam (Num 22:21–35). Three times the animal sees an angel standing in her path with drawn sword; at first she swerves off the road and then stops to save her master’s life. Having neither perceived the presence of the angel nor realized the danger, Balaam strikes the donkey on all three occasions. Miraculously, the donkey has the power of speech to reprove Balaam for his own obstinacy and quick temper. As God uncovers his eyes, Balaam finally understands the situation , bows his head, and prostrates himself on the ground. The Rabbis observe that if God could allow a beast to talk intelligently, surely Balaam could speak only in accordance with the divine will and could not carry out Balak’s plan to curse the Israelites.25 According to 716 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions legend, the talking donkey was one of the miracles created at twilight on the sixth day of Creation, just before the onset of the first Sabbath (Avot 5:8). The donkey was a symbol of royalty—Saul, David, Solomon, and Absalom are described as riding donkeys, as will the Messiah at the end of days. Based on the prophesy of Zechariah (9:9) that the Messiah will ride into Jerusalem "triumphant and victorious, [yet] lowly [humble ], and riding on a donkey,"26 the Talmud states, "if one sees a donkey in a dream, he may hope for salvation" (Ber. 56b).27 Dove (hn+oy) The white dove (yonah) is a universal symbol of peace, purity, beauty, vulnerability, and innocence. In The Song of Songs (5:2), the lover calls his beloved a "faultless dove." The dove has long been a herald of spring in Israel: "The blossoms have appeared in the land; the time of pruning has come; the song of the turtledove [tor] is heard in our land" (Song 2:12).28 The Psalms refer to the graceful flight of the dove (Ps. 55:7) and to the beauty of the bird’s feathers as they shimmer in the bright sunlight (Ps. 68:14).29 The first and most famous dove mentioned in the Bible was the one that Noah sent out from the ark. She returned to the ark with an olive leaf in her mouth (according to tradition, plucked from the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem), so that "Noah knew that the waters had decreased on the earth" (Gen. 8:8–11). The dove holding an olive branch in its mouth is a well-known symbol of peace. During temple times, doves and turtledoves were brought as sacrificial offerings by the poor (Lev. 5:7) because they were the least expensive animal offering, by a Nazirite after the completion of his vow (Num. 6:10), by a woman after her days of purification following childbirth (Lev. 12:6; see p. 561), and as part of the purification ritual of a poor person who had been afflicted with the skin disease tzara’at (Lev. 14:22). These birds were included among those that Abraham offered at the "covenant between the pieces" (Gen. 15:9), when God promised that the Patriarch’s descendants would be granted the Land of Israel as their eternal heritage. In rabbinic literature, Israel is often likened to a dove, the gentlest of birds that is unable to fight either with its claws or beak. A tireless Specific Animals 717 flier, the powerless and persecuted dove was an apt simile for the Jewish people, who have steadfastly persisted in exile despite almost constant suffering. Unlike other birds, which rest on the top of a tree or a rock when they grow weary from flying, the dove merely folds one of her wings and flies with the other. The aggadah (Gen. R. 39) interprets this behavior as meaning that the nations of the world need both wings (land and culture) to survive, whereas Israel (in the Diaspora) can soar to great heights even on one wing (i.e., its culture, which is the Torah) (Gen. R. 39). In another passage, the Rabbis note that just as the dove does not struggle when slaughtered, so the Israelites do not resist when they are killed for kiddush ha-Shem (sanctification of God’s name) (Midrash Tehillim 159a).30 The Talmud observes that just as feathers protect the dove, so the mitzvot protect Israel from danger (Shab. 49a).31 According to legend, above the throne of King Solomon perched a dove with a hawk in its talons, symbolizing the ultimate victory of Israel over its enemies.32 The Talmud notes that among people ineligible to be witnesses are those who race pigeons or set up decoys to attract other birds from the dovecote of their neighbor (Sanh. 25a). Goat (zi2C ryi1S<=C yd!g<$) In biblical Israel, the goat was a vital part of the economy. In addition to serving as a valuable source of meat (Gen. 27:9, 38:20; Judg. 13:15) and milk (Prov. 27:27), its hide and hair were used for clothing, parchment , tents, water vessels, and the curtains of the Tabernacle. The goat was the most common sin offering (Lev. 4:23,28), possibly because its black hair was the antithesis of the white of purity. On Yom Kippur, the sins of Israel were symbolically transferred to a goat (scapegoat) in the rite of Azazel (Lev. 16:5–22; see p. 224). The ancient practice of boiling a kid in milk as part of idolatrous fertility ceremonies may have been the underlying source of the prohibition against “boil[ing] a kid in its mother’s milk” (Exod. 23:19, 34:26; Deut. 14:21). From the threefold repetition of this prohibition, the Rabbis deduced the general law against eating meat with milk and its associated laws (Kid. 57b). In the popular Had Gadya (One little kid), sung at the conclusion of the Passover seder, the kid is the symbol of the Jewish people. This an718 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions imal also is featured in a prophetic image of the Messianic Age of peace, when “the leopard [shall] lie down with the kid” (Isa. 11:6). Hare (tb3n#ra-) The hare is one of the nonkosher animals that the Israelites are forbidden to eat (Lev. 11:6; Deut. 14:7). However, the Bible incorrectly categorizes the hare as a ruminant. This may be related to the constant movement of its jaw (it munches its food as it eats). An alternative explanation is the hare’s habit of regurgitating previously eaten food to its mouth from its stomach.33 According to the Talmud, when the 70 Jewish elders were summoned to Alexandria to translate the Bible for Ptolemy (the Septuagint), they independently rendered the Hebrew word for “hare” as “the beast with small legs,” lest they offend the king’s wife—Lagos, whose Greek name meant “hare”—by mocking her as an unclean animal in the Torah (Meg. 9b).34 Horse (sVs) The relatively mountainous Land of Israel was not noted for breeding horses, and thus these animals were regarded as a luxury. As a mode of transportation, only the wealthy and the nobility rode horses. When raised to the position of viceroy of Egypt, Joseph was honored by riding in one of Pharaoh’s horse-drawn chariots (Gen. 41:43). In Persia, Ahasuerus honored Mordecai by dressing him up in royal garments and allowing him to sit atop “the horse on which the king has ridden” while being led through the streets of the capital by Haman, his archenemy (Esther 6:7–11). The prophet Elijah was carried up to Heaven in a fiery chariot, drawn by “fiery horses” (2 Kings 2:11). The Bible warned the king that, in addition to too many wives and excessive treasure, he should not amass too many horses or send people to Egypt to acquire more of them (Deut. 17:16). Ibn Ezra and Sefer ha-Hinnukh noted that, after leaving Egypt, the Israelites were forbidden to ever settle there again. Egypt was a major source of horses in ancient times. In the earliest biblical reference to the animal, it is related that in the time of famine “Joseph gave them bread in exchange for horses” (Gen. 47:17). If permitted to purchase horses without restricSpecific Animals 719 tion, a king would send agents for this purpose to Egypt, thus setting up an Israelite settlement there.35 Despite this admonition, Solomon realized that horses drawing iron chariots were formidable implements of war and began to purchase them (1 Kings 10:28–29). He felt no qualms about violating this (and the other) restrictions on the royal privileges, because he was certain that his incomparable wisdom would protect him from the consequences indicated in the biblical verses. However, Solomon was mistaken. Filling his large stables did bring the people back to Egypt, his foreign wives led the people to idol worship, and the heavy taxes he imposed let to a split of the kingdom after his death.36 In Babylonia, Rav cautioned his pupil, “Do not dwell in a town in which no horse neighs and no dog barks,” for dogs raise the alarm and the robbers are pursued on horseback (Pes. 113a). The horse sleeps for a very brief period (only “sixty respirations” at night; Suk. 26b), and thus can serve as a model for the diligent scholar who should spend all his time studying Torah. “Six things were said of a horse: it loves promiscuity, it loves battle, it has a proud spirit, it needs little sleep, it eats much, and it excretes little. Some say it also seeks to slay its master in battle” (Pes. 113b). The power of the warhorse is well illustrated by its vivid portrayal in Job (39:20–22): “The glory of his snorting is terrible. He paws in the valley and rejoices in his strength: he goes forth to meet the clash of arms. He mocks fear and is not afraid; nor does he turn back from the sword.” Nevertheless, horse-drawn war chariots were not invincible. As Moses and the Israelites exclaimed after crossing the Sea of Reeds, “He [God] has triumphed gloriously; horse and driver He has hurled into the sea” (Exod. 15:1). The Psalmist (20:8) warns against overestimating the abilities of this animal: “They call on chariots, they [call] on horses,37 but we call on the name of the Lord our God.”38 Leopard (rm2n+) The leopard (namer), whose Hebrew name means “spotted coat,” was once the strongest and most deadly carnivorous animal in the Middle East. In modern Israel, only a few remain in the Negev and Arava. The prophets describe the swiftness of the leopard (Hab. 1:8), possibly a reference to the cheetah, and to its habit of waiting motionless before 720 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions leaping on its prey (Hos. 13:7). The strength of the leopard (along with the swiftness of the deer, the courage of the lion, and the lightness of the eagle) was one of the four qualities needed “to carry out the will of your Father in Heaven” (Avot 5:23). In a famous verse, Jeremiah (13:23) asked, “Can the Cushite [Ethiopian] change his skin, or the leopard his spots?” In Isaiah’s (11:6) vision of the Messianic Age, when carnivorous animals and their usual prey will live peacefully together, the prophet declares that “the leopard [shall] lie down with the kid.” Lion (yr!a7) Termed “the king of the wild animals” (Hag. 13b) in the Talmud, the lion (with the bear) is mentioned in the Bible several times as the most powerful predator and a general symbol of strength (Prov. 28:15; Joel 1:6; Nah. 2:13). Only on rare occasions was a lion killed by a man of great personal courage, such as Samson (Judg. 14:5–6), David (1 Sam. 17:34–36), and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada (2 Sam. 23:20). In one of Daniel’s (7:4) visions, the powerful kingdom of Babylonia is represented as a lion with eagle’s wings. The tribes of Gad (Deut. 33:20), Dan (Deut. 33:22), and Judah (Gen. 49:9) are compared to lions, although it was Judah whose name eventually became closely associated with this symbol. King David, the foremost descendant of Judah, first displayed his strength and courage as a lad when he killed a lion and a bear (1 Sam. 17:34–36). Consequently , the Davidic dynasty and the Messiah (who will spring from this royal house) have also been identified with the lion. Two lions stood on either side of King Solomon’s throne, as well as on both sides of the six steps leading up to it (1 Kings 10:20). In Ezekiel’s (1:4–21) incredible vision of the divine chariot (merkavah), there were four creatures , each with four faces (lion, ox, eagle, human being) and four wings fused together into a fiery four-wheeled vehicle whose rims were covered with eyes. In the Messianic Age, “the lion will lie down with the lamb” (Isa. 11:6).39 The “Lion of Judah” has long been a major symbol of the Jewish people . Today, the ark curtain and the mantle covering the Torah scroll are often embroidered with lions, especially “rampant lions”—a pair of the animals rearing on their hind legs. Based on this image, common Specific Animals 721 Jewish names have been Aryeh and Ari (lion), Ariel (lion of God), and their Yiddish equivalents Leib and Loeb.40 According to the Mishnah, the qualities required to perform God’s will included the bravery of a lion combined with the strength of a leopard, the ability to soar like an eagle, and the swiftness of a deer (Avot 5:23). The lion also represented spiritual as well as physical prowess, and thus the term was used figuratively to refer to outstanding talmudic scholars. In the 16th century, Isaac Luria, the famed kabbalist , was known as the Ari (lion) in recognition of his extraordinary knowledge and spiritual energy. Lions roamed the desert and mountainous regions of the Land of Israel throughout biblical times and the talmudic period. Hunted almost to extinction by the Crusaders, lions have virtually disappeared from the area. Locust (hb<3r$a-) and Grasshopper (bg+c=) The locust (arbeh) and the grasshopper (hagav) are two of the four insects that have “above their feet, jointed [jumping] legs to leap with on the ground” and are permitted as food (Lev. 11:21–22). Although these insects were eaten in talmudic times, later rabbis declared that all species of locusts and grasshoppers are forbidden because the four types of permitted insects can no longer be unequivocally identified. Nevertheless, some Yemenite Jews still eat fried locusts and grasshoppers based on of their tradition of kashrut. The locust was the eighth of the 10 plagues of Egypt (Exod. 10:4–19; see p. 280). The Midrash teaches that this was “measure for measure,” just as the Egyptians forced their Jewish slaves to grow crops, so did the locusts devour them.41 One of the curses that would befall the Israelites if they failed to obey the will of God was, “Though you take much seed out to the field, you shall gather in little, for the locust shall consume it” (Deut. 28:38). For centuries, periodic swarms of locusts have devastated the landscape. The description in Exodus (10:15) that these creatures “hid all the land from view, and the land was darkened ” was not simply a literary device, for in some parts of Africa locusts have been known to blanket the ground for more than 2,000 square miles.42 One of the most severe plagues occurred during the days of Joel, who devoted most of his prophecy to a precise description 722 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions of the catastrophic damage they caused and the deafening roar they produce. “With a clatter as of chariots they bound on the hilltops, with a noise like a blazing fire consuming straw; like an enormous horde arrayed for battle” (Joel 2:5). There was little the people could do in the face of a locust invasion, other than “blow a horn in Zion,43 solemnize a fast, proclaim an assembly [to pray for divine mercy]” (Joel 2:15). The small grasshopper hiding in the grass is used figuratively in the Bible to depict the insignificance of human beings when seen from above, as in Isaiah’s (40:22) observation that “He [God] is enthroned above the vault of the earth, so that its inhabitants seem as grasshoppers .” The Israelite spies sent by Moses to scout out the land of Canaan reported that its inhabitants were of such gigantic size that “we looked like grasshoppers in our eyes, and so were we in their eyes” (Num. 13:33).44 Because they had no confidence in their own strength or in the divine promise that they would take over the land, the cowardly spies assumed that others also saw them as small and powerless.45 Mouse (rb<=k4i-) The mouse (achbar) is a small rodent listed among the “things that swarm on the earth” that are prohibited as food (Lev. 11:29). Isaiah (66:17) attacked those who eat “the flesh of the swine, the reptile, and the mouse” as part of idolatrous rites, warning that they will be “consumed together” as part of the divine judgment. A horde of these prolifically multiplying rodents was reported to have destroyed the crops and caused a plague to break out among the Philistines after they captured the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam. 6:4–5). The Rabbis believed that mice were “half flesh and half earth” (i.e., capable of spontaneous generation) (Hul. 9:6, 126b). A miserly person was called “a mouse lying on his money” (Sanh. 29b), a reference to the fact that these creatures often drag glittering objects, such as coins and rings, into their holes. People who ate food that had been nibbled by mice (or who ate a mouse itself) would lose their memory (forget their learning) (Hor. 13a). What would happen if a mouse fell into a large volume of liquid? If “a mouse fell into a cask of beer,” the beer was prohibited. Although according to one opinion this was because it [the mouse] “imparts a worsened flavor,” the general consensus was that this case “was an anomaly since it is something repugnant and people Specific Animals 723 recoil from it.” If a mouse fell into vinegar, so that the rodent would not affect its sharp and pungent taste, the vinegar would still be prohibited because the mouse “may have been dissolved into pieces,” and there was the fear that one might swallow some of this forbidden animal (Av. Zar. 68b–69a). According to the Talmud, “originally the terumah [sacred food] was stored near the Scroll of the Law,” (Shab. 14a) since both were holy, but this practice was discontinued because the food attracted mice and injured (imposed uncleanness on) the sacred books.46 Mythical Creatures Leviathan (Nt=y+v$l1) In biblical and talmudic literature, the term “Leviathan” refers to various marine animals, some real and others legendary. Derived from a Hebrew root meaning “to coil or twist,” Leviathan was a gigantic sea serpent that encircled itself around the seas of the world.47 According to the Bible, on the fifth day God created the “great sea monsters” (tanninim gedolim) (Gen. 1:21). Although the term “tannin” may occasionally refer to crocodiles or whales, it most often denotes a mythical creature, one of which may have been the “huge fish” that swallowed Jonah (2:1). When these sea monsters rebelled against the divine authority , God utterly destroyed them (Ps. 74:13–14; Isa. 27:1). This scenario is similar to prebiblical myths of a primordial combat between the creator deity and the forces of the sea for control of the universe.48 Leviathan was originally created in a male and female form. “[But] had they mated with one another they would have destroyed the whole world [with their numerous progeny]. What [then] did the Holy One, blessed be He, do? He castrated the male and killed the female, preserving it in salt for the righteous in the world to come” (BB 74b). According to tradition, Leviathan and Behemoth (see below) will fight to their deaths at the end of days, and the righteous will feast on their flesh (Lev. R. 13:3). This epic struggle and the subsequent messianic banquet are vividly depicted in Akdamut (see p. 301), the 11th-century Aramaic liturgical poem that Ashkenazim chant in the synagogue on Shavuot.49 The skin of Leviathan will be used to “make a tabernacle for the righteous,” and God will spread the rest of the sea monster “upon the walls of Jerusalem, and its splendor will shine from one end of the world to the other” (BB 75a). 724 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions Behemoth (tomh2b<4) According to tradition, this king of the land beasts (behemot) also was created on the fifth day and destined to feed the righteous at the messianic banquet after fighting the sea monster Leviathan to the death. Each day, this legendary monster was reputed to consume the grass of a thousand hills (BB 74b). In the Book of Job (40:15–24), Behemoth is depicted as an animal that “eats grass like an ox,” lives in the marsh hidden in the reeds, eats vast amounts of food, and can “draw the [waters of the] Jordan into his mouth.” Of astounding strength, “he stiffens his tail like a cedar; the sinews of his thighs are knit together; his bones are like tubes of bronze, his limbs like bars of iron rods.”50 This precise description suggests that Behemoth originally referred to an existing animal —the huge hippopotamus that once inhabited the Land of Israel—though in later Jewish literature it appears as a purely mythical creature. Nesher (rD3n#; Eagle or Vulture) Although the word “nesher” is usually translated as “eagle,” in many biblical passages the bird possesses characteristics (bald head, feeding on carcasses) indicating that it actually is a griffon vulture. The nesher is one of the species of bird that is forbidden for food (Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14:12). The talmudic sages traditionally identified the nesher as an eagle, applying the term to this symbol of imperial Rome. During the reign of Herod, the golden eagle perched above the gates of the Temple was a constant source of friction with the Jews in the Land of Israel.51 Although the largest of Israel’s carnivorous birds and a mighty predator, the eagle treats its slowly developing young with concern. This image is often used as a metaphor for divine protection, especially God’s loving care of Israel when leading the people safely through the wilderness. Just as the nesher carries its young on its back, using its own body as a shield against arrows, so God protected the Israelites from the Egyptians at the Sea of Reeds by placing the pillar of cloud between the Jews and their pursuers.52 Indeed the phrase “I bore you on eagles’ wings and brought you to Me” (Exod. 19:4) was applied to the airlift of the Yemenite Jews to Israel after the establishment of the State in 1948. In describing the qualities needed to perform God’s will, Pirkei Avot (5:23) says one should be “swift as an eagle ... to do the will of your Specific Animals 725 Father in Heaven.” The speed and ability of the eagle to soar higher than other birds has been a symbol of prayer. In the morning service, one says, “Were our hands outspread like eagle’s wings,” we still could not give sufficient thanks for all the divine blessings.53 Proverbs (23:5) warns against coveting riches, for once attained “it [riches] grows wings and flies away, like an eagle, heavenward.”54 Pig (ryz!c7) The pig (chazir) is one of the unclean animals prohibited as food; although it has a cloven foot, it does not chew its cud (Lev. 11:7; Deut. 14:8). In his Guide of the Perplexed, Maimonides observed that “pork contains more moisture than is necessary (for human food) and too much superfluous matter. The principal reason why the Law forbids swine’s flesh is that the habits and food of the swine are very dirty and loathsome.”55 Rabbi Papa noted, “The mouth of a swine is as dirty as dung itself” (Ber. 25a). The pig is a symbol of everything repulsive, as in the verse, “like a gold ring in the snout of a pig is a beautiful woman bereft of sense” (Prov. 11:22). Nevertheless, the Rabbis noted that the refusal of a Jew to eat pig should be based not on personal revulsion but on the divine command. “Aman should not say, ‘I have no desire to eat swine’s flesh’; rather should he say, ‘I would like to eat it, but what can I do seeing that my Father in Heaven has decreed against it’” (Sifra Ked. 11:22). The Rabbis even offered a substitute—the “shibuta” (Hul. 109b), a fish whose brain reportedly had a taste similar to swine’s flesh. The pig was so despised by Jews that the Talmud often refused to mention it by name, referring to it only as “davar acheir” (“another thing”; Ber. 43b; Shab. 129a). Rashi noted that the swine eats anything and is also given much food, giving rise to the talmudic expression, “None is richer than a pig” (Shab. 155b). Nevertheless, the pig suffers from numerous illnesses: “Ten measures of sores [diseases] descended to the world; nine were taken by swine” (Kid. 49b). Rabbinic law distinguished between items prohibited for food (treif) and those from which no benefit can be enjoyed (such as hametz on Passover). Therefore, although it is forbidden to eat the flesh of swine, it is permitted to wear pigskin shoes (even in the synagogue), carry a pigskin wallet, and even bind religious books in pigskin.56 The pig figures in a famous passage in which the Rabbis elucidate 726 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions the dangers of drunkenness (Tanh. Noah 13:21b). One who drinks properly becomes strong as a lion, but those who drink more than they should become like a pig wallowing in the mire, and one who becomes drunk “dances like an ape and utters folly before all.”57 In the days preceding the Maccabean revolt, Antiochus Epiphanes forced the Jews to offer pigs as religious sacrifices on their altars (1 Macc. 1:47) and then eat of their flesh (2 Macc. 6:18–7:42). The Greeks, to whom pork was a delicacy, wanted the Jews to eat swine flesh as part of the effort to Hellenize them. However, many Jews suffered martyrdom for refusing to violate the dietary laws (e.g., Hannah’s seven sons; 2 Macc. 7:20).58 After a subsequent occurrence during Titus’s siege of Jerusalem, when a pig was sacrificed instead of a kosher animal, the Rabbis declared, “Cursed be a man who rears pigs [and cursed be a man who teaches his son Greek wisdom!]” (Sot. 49b). The question of raising pigs in the modern State of Israel has engendered heated controversy. The religious parties fought for a national law forbidding pig breeding, but in the early years the matter was left to the local authorities. A1962 law prohibited the breeding, keeping, or slaughtering of pigs, except in Nazareth and some other areas with substantial Christian populations. Nevertheless, there is a kibbutz in the Galilee that raises pigs and has a plant to produce pork sausage. Moreover, several Russian markets sell pork products in Jewish areas, arousing the ire of Orthodox Jews living in these communities. Quail (vl=S4) The smallest member of the pheasant family, the quail (s’lav) is featured in one of the biblical incidents in which the Israelites displayed their ingratitude for the divine miracle of freeing them from slavery in Egypt. The “mixed multitude” succeeded in influencing the rest of the nation to complain about their steady diet of manna: “If only we had meat to eat! We remember the fish that we used to eat free in Egypt, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the onions, and the garlic. Now our gullets are shriveled. There is nothing at all! Nothing but this manna to look to!” (Num. 11:4–6). God instructed Moses to inform the people that they would eat meat for a full month, so much that it would “come out of your nostrils and become loathsome to you,” and they would regret their arrogant declaration that they would prefer to be back in Specific Animals 727 Egypt (Num. 11:18–20).59 Consequently, God caused a wind to blow large flocks of quail from the sea and spread them widely over the land, “about a day’s journey on this side and about a day’s journey on that side, all around the camp, and some two cubits deep on the ground” (Num. 11:31). Some of the birds were eaten fresh; the rest were spread out on the ground to dry in the sun. The Psalmist recalled this instance of the Lord’s bounty to the wandering Israelites in the verses: “He rained meat on them like dust, winged birds like the sands of the sea” (Ps. 78:27) and “They asked and He brought them quail, and satisfied them with food from heaven” (Ps. 105:40). However, this story had a tragic epilogue—“the meat was still between their teeth, not yet chewed, when the anger of the Lord blazed forth against the people and the Lord struck the people with a very severe plague” (Num. 11:33). According to Nachmanides, those who had incited the people to complain died immediately. Chizkuni added that before killing these instigators, God wanted to dramatically demonstrate the ability to supply sufficient meat to satisfy everyone.60 Finally, God named the place Kivrot-hatta’avah “because the people who had the craving were buried there” (Num. 11:34). The biblical narrative has its basis in a natural phenomenon. During their annual migrations, large flocks of quail used to cross over the Mediterranean Sea. Upon reaching the coast near Gaza and exhausted from their lengthy flight, the birds would land and could be easily caught in nets spread out on the ground. Scorpion (br+q4i-) The scorpion (akrav) is described in the Bible as a dangerous creature of the wilderness (Deut. 8:15). Elsewhere, the scorpion is used symbolically , as in King Rehoboam’s warning to the people: “My father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions” (1 Kings 12:11; 2 Chron.10:11,14).61 In this context, scorpions are prickly thorns, whose sharp ends can sting just as scorpions inject a poison that causes severe pain. If a scorpion is wound around a man’s foot, he is permitted to stop his prayer because the scorpion will sting (Ber. 33a). Indeed, these animals are so dangerous that if a man falls into a pit full of scorpions (and serpents), this can be used legally as evidence of his death to enable his wife to marry again (Yev. 121a). One of the minor miracles 728 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions mentioned as occurring during the Second Temple period was that “no serpent or scorpion inflicted injury in Jerusalem” (Avot 5:7).62 Sheep (Sb3k<3, hS3) Sheep were important domestic animals in ancient Israel, providing meat, wool, and hides for shoes and clothing. Sheep were a valuable source of rich milk (Deut. 32:14), which was usually allowed to curdle before drinking to produce leben. In the Psalms (144:13), there is a prayer for the fertility of the flocks: “May our sheep bring forth thousands and ten thousands in our fields!”63 Sheep were often used as sacrifices in the Temple, giving rise to the expression “sheep [or lamb] for the slaughter” (Ps. 44:23; Jer. 12:3; Isa. 53:7). This phrase describing weak and innocent animals being led to their deaths became allegorically applied to the martyrdom of Jews from biblical times to the Holocaust. The curved horn of the ram, the male sheep, was the classic shofar (RH 3:4), the symbol of Rosh Hashanah that is sounded repeatedly to call the people to repentance (see p. 190). Although a shofar can be made from the horn of a variety animals, a ram’s horn is preferred because it recalls the Akedah (sacrifice of Isaac), the quintessential example of utter obedience to the divine will that is a key aspect of the High Holy Day season. The fleece of the ram is used for the fringes of the tallit (tzitzit), and its hide provides the straps of the tefillin and the parchment of the Torah scroll.64 The shepherd tending his flock is a popular biblical metaphor for God caring for the Jewish people (Ezek. 34; Ps. 23:1). The U-netaneh Tokef recited on Rosh Hashanah (see p. 199) depicts all creatures passing before God, one by one, like a flock of sheep before the shepherd who decrees their fate. On Yom Kippur, the Jewish people are metaphorically described as the dutiful sheep of the divine shepherd in Ki Anu Amecha (see p. 218). Before the 10th plague, God commanded the Israelites to sacrifice a lamb and smear its blood on their doorposts (Exod. 12:6–13) as a sign for the Angel of Death to pass over their houses when smiting the firstborn of Egypt. Since the destruction of the Temple, the ritual of sacrificing the paschal lamb has been symbolized by the roasted shank bone on the Passover seder plate (see p. 270). Born in the spring and associated with Passover, the festival of naSpecific Animals 729 tional redemption, lambs symbolize rebirth and renewal. Indeed, in early Hebrew mosaics the lamb is the sign for the first month of spring, which the pagan zodiac depicts as Aries the Ram.65 Snake or Serpent (Dc=n+) Since the beginning of biblical history, the snake has been considered the eternal enemy of human beings. According to legend, God originally made the serpent king of the beasts, standing erect and endowed with some ability to speak. However, the snake’s intense jealousy toward human beings led to its downfall (Gen. R. 20:5).66 After enticing Eve into disobeying the divine prohibition against eating from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil (see p. 696), the snake received the severe punishment of having to crawl on its belly and eat the earth. The enmity between the snake and humans would be everlasting: “they shall strike at your head, and you shall strike at their heel” (Gen. 3:14–15). From this verse, the sages derived an approach that should be followed when human beings are confronted with the inclination to do evil, which is symbolized by the serpent. Because the wily serpent tempts the Jew to tread on the mitzvot with his heel, the Jew can overcome the evil inclination by using his or her head—the study of Torah.67 In Egypt, the rod of Aaron turned into a snake and swallowed the serpentlike rods of the magicians of Pharaoh (Exod. 7:11–12). Jacob described his son Dan as “a serpent by the road, a viper by the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that his rider is thrown backward” (Gen. 49:16–17). Rashi and Ramban noted that this was an apt depiction of Samson, a descendant of Dan, who repeatedly attacked the enemy Philistines in lightning raids and then disappeared from sight before they could retaliate. Just as a snake “bites the horse’s heels” so that it throws and indirectly kills its rider, so the blind and chained Samson caused the collapse of the idolatrous temple of the Philistines by pulling down its massive pillars, killing himself and 3,000 of the enemies of Israel (Judg. 16:29).68 As punishment for their rebellion in the wilderness, God sent fiery serpents to bite the people. When the people repented, God heeded their prayers and ordered Moses to make a model of a serpent and place it on a pole, “and if anyone who is bitten looks at it, he shall recover ” (Num. 21:6–10). Although God did not specify the material to 730 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions be used, Moses chose copper (nechoshet), because in Hebrew it contains the letters of the nachash (serpent) that was attacking the sinners (Rashi).69 According to the Mishnah, the copper serpent had no intrinsic power, but was effective because “when Israel turned their thoughts and subjected their hearts to their Father in Heaven, they were healed” (JT RH 3:8, 29a), just as Israel prevailed in the battle against Amalek (Exod. 17:11) when Moses raised his arms and focused the gaze and minds of the people toward Heaven.70 This copper serpent eventually became an object of idol worship in the Temple until it was destroyed by King Hezekiah in the eighth century B.C.E. (2 Kings 18:4), an action that was praised by the Rabbis (Ber. 10b).71 The Psalmist (140:4) asked God for protection from violent men who have “sharpened their tongue like a serpent.”72 On the Sabbath, it was permitted to slay “the [poisonous] snake of Israel (Shab. 121b) and the Jerusalem Talmud (Kid. 4:11, 66c) maintained that “even with the best of snakes, crush its head”. Appreciating that poisonous snakes generally do not attack human beings without provocation, the Rabbis ruled that a person should not interrupt the recitation of the Amidah “even if a snake is wound around his heel” (Ber. 5:1). Wolf (ba2z$) The wolf is frequently mentioned in the Bible and rabbinic literature as a dangerous animal that attacks at night and poses a serious danger to flocks of sheep. When wolves attack in a pack, the shepherd cannot be held liable for the loss of the animals in his care (BM 7:9, 93b). When castigating the “evil princes” of Israel, Ezekiel (22:27) compares them to “wolves rending prey in her midst; they shed blood and destroy lives to win ill-gotten gain.” In Jacob’s blessings for his sons, the youngest (Benjamin) is described as “a ravenous wolf; in the morning he consumes the foe [devours his prey], and in the evening he divides the spoil” (Gen. 49:27). Many of Benjamin’s descendants were powerful and fearless warriors. According to Rashi, the “morning” refers to King Saul, who was the leader of the Israelites during the early successful years of their history. When the people were exiled to Babylonia and Persia in the national “evening” of decline, it will be the offspring of Benjamin who will defeat the enemies of Israel and “divide the spoils” of their victory. This Specific Animals 731 is an allusion to Mordecai and Esther, of the tribe of Benjamin, who triumphed over Haman and, after the hanging of this epitome of wickedness , were granted all his worldly possessions.73 732 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions ...