241 notes Chapter One 1. The population figure is from the 2007 census. See www.patrocinio. mg.gov.br for official government statistics and other information relating to the municipality of Patrocínio, Minas Gerais. 2. Additional Calunga interviews and corresponding translations can be found in the appendix. Chapter twO 1. Luís de Camões, often referred to as the Shakespeare of Portugal by literary scholars, has immortalized Vasco da Gama’s India voyage in his epic poem Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads), published in 1572. 2. Portugal’s twentieth-century military engagement in Angola was referred to as “Os cus de Judas” by celebrated Portuguese novelist and Angolan war veteran António Lobo Antunes (1979/2004). His novel by that title was translated into English as South of Nowhere and The Land South of Nowhere but in Portuguese literally means ‘the assholes of Judas.’ 3. This is only a sample of the indigenous Brazilian peoples that Abreu describes. See his Chapters of Brazil’s Colonial History, 1500–1800, for the complete list. 4. For a comprehensive overview of the origins of slavery and the slave system in the Americas, see Klein (1986), chapter 1. 5. In contrast, the 1790 census of the United States reported that 20 percent of the population was of African origin (Olsen 2003:59). 6. Contemporary statistics regarding the percentage of Afro-Brazilians are in dispute. For instance, Boadi-Siaw (2007:164) writes that 44 percent of the total population of Brazil is of African descent, while Leal (2001:291) contends that Afro-Brazilians represent 53 percent of Brazil’s total population. 7. Other than Brazil, significant maroon slave communities have existed in Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Suriname, Cuba, and Jamaica (Price 1999). 242 8. For further discussion of African and Afro-Brazilian resistance and rebellion and the proliferation of quilombos in Brazil, see Leal (2001) and Reis (2001). Chapter three 1. See Lipski (2005) for a comprehensive list and analyses of Afro-Iberian texts from the Iberian Peninsula and Latin America. The appendices provide excerpts of Afro-Portuguese and Afro-Brazilian literature. 2. See Holm (1989:272–77) for further discussion, bibliography, and examples of Upper Guinea Portuguese creoles. 3. Holm (2004:51) argues that “there are abundant phonological, syntactic, and lexical features linking São Tomé Creole Portuguese and [Brazilian Portuguese vernacular, BPV].” See the discussion on the origins of BPV later in this chapter. 4. See Holm (1989:277–84) and Hagemeijer (2009) for further discussion, bibliography, and examples of Gulf of Guinea Portuguese creoles. 5. See Maurer (1995) and Lorenzino (1998a) for further discussion, bibliography, and examples of Angolar Creole Portuguese. 6. Mello (1997:211–12) notes that Língua Geral is still spoken along the Rio Negro in the Amazon region. 7. It is worth noting that evidence of Portuguese is found in various creole languages of the Caribbean: Papiamentu, Saramaccan, and the Frenchbased creole of Guyana. This evidence suggests that Portuguese may have been spoken on the early coastal plantations of Brazil and then moved north into the Caribbean region in some unclear manner. See Holm (1989:312–16, 2004:51–54) for further discussion. 8. According to Azevedo (2005:196), some forty languages are spoken in contemporary Angola, mostly Bantu. “Fluency in Portuguese is limited,” he notes, “and most speakers speak a variety of European Portuguese influenced by native languages.” Umbundu is the most spoken language in the country (at 29.8 percent of the population), more so than Portuguese (26.3 percent). As for Kimbundu (15.4 percent), Azevedo states that it “seems to be in a process of replacement by Angolan Popular Portuguese.” Although Azevedo provides no comparative statistical data, he notes that approximately 1.5 million people speak Kikongo in Angola. 9. This text is similar in nature to an earlier publication: José de Anchieta’s Arte de grammatica da lingoa mais usada na costa do Brasil, published in 1595, which was written for Portuguese Jesuits to learn Língua Geral (Leite and Callou 2002:64). notes to PAges 49—62 [3.238.161.165] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 15:19 GMT) 243 10. My 2002 visit to the small village of Quartel de Indaiá, near São João da Chapada, showed the presence of Bantu architecture and traditional sugarcane cultivation. Unfortunately, informants were unwilling to share their Afro-Brazilian language (which they called Língua Antiga [ancient language]) and vissungos with me. Observe the following excerpt of a vissungo documented by Nascimento...