In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:

27. China’s Obstinacy Since the time of Yao and Shun, China has had a highly developed civilization, and its moral culture and politics have been developed to an admirably high level. This led to an arrogant mentality, claiming that China alone was a [civilized] nation while the adjoining countries were all barbarian, namely the eastern (tung-i), the western (hsi-jung), the southern (nan-man), and the northern barbarians (pei-ti). When a country asked for an amicable relationship and sent an emissary, [China] dispatched troops to repel it, or lacking strength, appeased it by sending a [Chinese] princess in marriage or generous gifts in order to keep it away. When pressed hard [for some form of recognition by China?], China would say that even kind words from a barbarian are no cause for rejoicing, while unkind words would cause no anger. This has been the customary practice since the days of Emperor Kao-tsu of Han;33 with such arrogance and impudence based on the idea that [China alone] existed in this world, normal intercourse with other nations was forbidden. Nothing on earth can be more bigoted and biased than this attitude! Since there might have been other powerful nations, [China] should have investigated how large and how strong they were in comparison with itself and should have tried to strengthen itself to avert a decline. If they were found to be so barbaric beyond comparison, [China] should have opened to them an access to its own civilization so that they could also become civilized and enjoy the benefits of civilization. This would have been fairer and China’s influence would have been more enhanced . This is the real purpose behind the international behavior of Great Britain and the United States. Why is it that my lofty moral philos143 ophy and my high civilization should be known only to me and be enjoyed only by my country? To refuse to look at what others have and to refuse to show others what I have mean that I have decided to have nothing to do with the rest of the world. If any stranger or anyone in strange attire appears in my territory , they are to be killed. If any of my subjects crosses the border to enter the territory of others, they are to be immediately seized and eliminated . Such prohibition is made into the law of the land that can never be changed. Where can one find similar bigotry and perverted custom? This had been the situation until almost sixty years ago when Great Britain and France first asked for trade. China called them Western barbarians and stopped them. Only when the British troops landed, pushed into Peking, and burned the palace, shocking the entire country and placing its future in immediate jeopardy, did [China] reluctantly permit trade and allow foreigners to reside in a settlement in Canton. As the British envoy entered Peking, his carriage bore a large sign in Chinese, which the Britons did not understand, announcing that he was on a mission to sue for surrender—a trick to deceive onlookers. The official archive recorded that on a certain date, [the envoy from] Great Britain came bearing a tribute. This was an absurd attempt to improve the situation by fooling the population. Subsequently, France took Annam and Siam went off on its own, but [China] could not say a word. Nor could [China] do anything when Britain occupied Burma and Japan took over the state of Ryūkyū [Okinawa]. All these had been dependent states of China that had long stayed in China’s shadow but had not dared to get out, while no one dared to encroach upon them. Overnight, the Western powers tore them away one by one, and [China] realized it could not challenge them. If China was aware of the Western powers’ strength, it nevertheless had no knowledge of where they were, what their sizes were, what systems of government and law they had, and what their peoples and their customs were like. Ignorance bred suspicion, which then gave rise to fear. The westerners were feared like tigers and, in meeting them, [the Chinese ] could not raise their heads; they denounced them, in their absence , as the Western devils or the Western barbarians. Anyone showing interest in learning about their moral philosophy and customs was repudiated as a student of heresy or a secret collaborator with foreigners. [Rumors spread] saying that [the westerners] made [the Chinese] take...

Share