Japan and the League of Nations: Empire and World Order, 1914–1938

Notes

 Notes Introduction 1. An example of the position that authoritarian institutions and militarization are more important than Taishō democracy and international cooperation in interwar Japan is that of Katō Shūichi’s essay, “Taishō Democracy as the Pre-Stage for Japanese Militarism.” The literary historian and critic argues that the flurry of liberalism in the post–World War I period did not challenge the traditional aspects of Japanese society but actually encouraged bureaucratization and militarization. The years of the 1920s prepared the Japanese grass roots “to accept the militarization of the whole state, the initiative for which came from the long established authority of the Imperial Army.” Katō Shūichi, “Taishō Democracy as the Pre-stage for Japanese Militarism,” Bernard S. Silberman and H. D. Harootunian, eds., Japan in Crisis: Essays on Taishō Democracy (Princeton, 1974), 218, 232. 2. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore, 1997), 57. 3. The standard, Western-language introduction to prewar pacifists is Nobuya Bamba and John F. Howes, eds., Pacifism in Japan: The Christian and Socialist Tradition (Kyoto, 1978). The writers in this volume construe pacifism broadly, to include internationalists who championed nonviolent alternatives to war. A more recent work by Mari Yamamoto, Grassroots Pacifism in Post-war Japan (London, 2004), probes the content of Japanese pacifism. Yamamoto addresses the legacy of prewar pacifist movements in the introduction, and deals primarily with their socialist manifestation. She does not treat internationalism as part of the pacifist spectrum. Activities and viewpoints of the Imperial Army in the World War I and interwar periods are treated in Kitaoka Shinichi, Nihon Rikugun to Tairiku Seisaku, 1906–1918 [The Japanese Army and continental policy, 1906–1918] (Tokyo, 1978); Charles B. Burdick, The Japanese Siege of Tsingtau: World War I in Asia (Hamden CT, 1976); Leonard A. Humphreys, The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920’s (Stanford, 1995); James B. Crowley, Japan’s Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy, 1930–1938 (Princeton, 1966); and Fujiwara Akira, “The Role of the Japanese Army,” Dorothy Borg and Shumpei Okamoto, eds., Pearl Harbor as History: Japanese-American Relations, 1931–1941 (New York, 1973). On naval matters of the period, see Roger Dingman, Power in the Pacific: The Origins of Naval Arms Limitation, 1914–1922 (Chicago, 1976); Stephen Howarth , The Fighting Ships of the Rising Sun (New York, 1983); Mark R. Peattie, Nan’yō: The  Notes to Pages – Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885–1945 (Honolulu, 1988); David C. Evans and Mark R. Peattie, Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941 (Annapolis, 1997); and Asada Sadao, “The Japanese Navy and the United States,” Borg and Okamoto, eds., Pearl Harbor as History, 225–260. . The World War I Experience 1. Quoted in Kobayashi Tatsuo, “Pari heiwa kaigi to Nihon no gaikō” [The Paris Peace Conference and Japan’s diplomacy], Ueda Toshio, ed., Kamikawa sensei kanreki kinen: Kindai Nihon gaikōshi no kenkyū [Studies in modern Japanese diplomatic history in honor of Professor Kamikawa] (Tokyo, 1956), 368. 2. For a bibliography of Western and Japanese sources on all aspects of Japan’s role in World War I, see Thomas W. Burkman, “Japan,” Robin Higham, ed., Researching World War I: A Handbook (Westport CT, 2003), 293–313. The finest comprehensive study in English is Frederick R. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914– 1919 (Cambridge MA, 1999). Attuned to domestic politics, Dickinson focuses on the war as a centerpiece of an internal debate on what the nation should become in the post-Meiji era. 3. Quoted in Wayne C. Thompson, “Chinese and Japanese Nationalism in the Age of Imperialism: The Views of Kurt Riezler,” Virginia Consortium for Asian Studies Occasional Papers 1:1 (Spring 1979), 24–25; see also Thompson, In the Eye of the Storm: Kurt Riezler and the Crises of Modern Germany (Iowa City, 1980), 45. 4. Gerd Hardach, The First World War, 1914–1918 (Berkeley, 1977), 287–289. 5. William W. Lockwood, Economic Development of Japan: Growth and Structural Change, 1868–1938 (Princeton, 1954), 42; George C. Allen, A Short Economic History of Modern Japan (London, 1962), 98. 6. Allen, Short Economic History, 99, 100, 112; W. H. Pitkin, “Proposed Occupation by Japanese Troops of Eastern Siberia,” 1 April 1918, 20: Inquiry Document no. 467, Records of the Research and Analysis Reports, National Archives. 7. Ukita Kazutami, “World Organization after the War,” Heiwa jihō, 5:10 (October 1917), 3–4; Gaikō Chōsakai meeting...