Generals and Scholars: Military Rule in Medieval Korea

Introduction

1 The military era was a transitional period in Koryŏ: civil rule gave way to military domination and then Mongol control starting in 1270. Rebellion and invasion tested Koryŏ’s traditions under mounting social, institutional, and intellectual pressures. Yet the importance of civil norms and civil officials, the primacy of the monarchic ideal, the prominence of social elites and kinship ties, and the centrality of Buddhist expression—all standards of Koryŏ—remained fundamental in the military era as well. These traditions, coupled with new developments during military rule, influenced events and institutions in the following Mongol era and then the kingdom of Chosŏn. The generals of this age confronted essential issues of governance : questions of how to deal with demands for social liberation and how to share power. The coup of 1170 was the culmination of decades of antimilitary discrimination and military entanglement in the divisions among the civil elite (Chapter 1). When the military revolted, Ŭijong abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Myŏngjong (r. 1170–1197). (For a list of the Koryŏ kings, see Figure 1.) Myŏngjong reigned rather than ruled as a succession of generals, starting with the coup leader Chŏng Chungbu (d. 1178), dominated the kingdom. Internal strife, rebellion, and administrative chaos marked the subsequent twenty-six years as coups and assassinations saw authority pass from General Chŏng to General Kyŏng Taesŭng (d. 1184) and then to a man of slave origins, Yi Ŭimin (d. 1196). During this turbulent period, some military leaders continued to work with civilian elites while others arrogantly abused their newfound authority. Introduction 2 Generals and Scholars These years of conflict and rebellion spawned the conditions that led to General Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn’s coup in 1196 (Chapter 2). Ch’oe finally halted the kingdom’s slide into anarchy when he assassinated YiŬimin in 1196 and then forced King Myŏngjong to abdicate to his brother Sinjong (r. 1197–1204) in 1197. Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn, his son U (also known as I), grandson Hang (d. 1257), and great-grandson Ŭi (d. 1258) became the de facto rulers of the kingdom. To preserve a semblance of legitimacy, Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn rapidly enthroned and dethroned a succession of kings during his initial years of consolidation . When Sinjong died after seven years on the throne, his son Hŭijong (r. 1204–1211) became the new king. Hŭijong, after enduring seven years of Ch’oe domination, tried to rebel. When he failed, Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn replaced him in favor of Myŏngjong’s son, who became King Kangjong (r. 1211–1213). Kangjong lived for two years. His son became King Kojong (r. 1213–1259) and reigned for fortysix years, dying one year after the last Ch’oe dictator had been assasFigure 1. Koryŏ Kings: 1123–1259 Ŭijong–Lady Kim (r. 1146–1170) Sinjong–Lady Kim (r. 1197–1204) Each of the ladies served as queen and in that capacity had a formal reign name. Their family lineage is significant and accordingly their surnames are used here. Most of these kings had only one spouse. Injong–Lady Im (r. 1123–1146) Myŏngjong–Lady Kim (r. 1170–1197) Kangjong–Lady Yu (r. 1212–1213) Hŭijong–Lady Im (r. 1204–1212) Kojong–Lady Wang (r. 1213–1259) Introduction 3 sinated. Through all of this, Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn stabilized the social order and created new private agencies to facilitate his control. Some of these institutions continued long after the Ch’oe House collapsed. In his search for stability, however, he discovered that he could rule most effectively by relying on civil elites to administer Koryŏ. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 examine the institutions of Ch’oe rule, both military and civilian, as well as the personalities of the era. The legacies of the past helped Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn maintain control. A conservative figure, Ch’oe sought to restore civil elites to administration . And by patronizing Confucian ideology he assured the ongoing acceptance of the monarchy. Politically he continued to rely on consensus-formulating institutions and sought to freeze the social order to limit social emancipation. But Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn was not manacled to the past. Indeed, he developed an innovative dual organization that relied on both dynastic and private institutions. In the years that...