In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:

CHAPTER 4 An Omnipotent Rubber Stamp In the previous chapter, we outlined the rise and fall of hopes for finding a viable pattern of placing an able monarch on the throne.The ultimate fiasco of these attempts to secure an ideal sovereign did not mean, however, that the contradiction between the high expectations of theTrue Monarch and the low esteem of current lords was thereafter ignored. On the contrary, late Zhanguo thinkers made painstaking efforts to find a more practical solution to the inherent conflict between their ideals and gloomy reality.The solution, albeit inconclusive , was to limit the ruler’s direct involvement in policy-making, thereby diminishing the potentially negative consequences of his ineptitude, while retaining the symbolic importance of his position. To trace the ways in which this bifurcation between the symbolic and practical aspects of the ruler’s power occurred,I shall focus on two major late Zhanguo thinkers: Xunzi and Han Feizi.The choice is not casual; the writings of both may be considered the apex of Zhanguo political thought, and each contributed decisively toward shaping of the imperial political culture. Both Xunzi and Han Feizi were well aware of the intellectual currents of their days, being deeply involved in ideological polemics, and each incorporated—albeit in different ways—the major achievements of their predecessors and contemporaries. Moreover, while both thinkers share many common premises and were even personally connected (Han Feizi reportedly studied under Xunzi), they differ sharply on many crucial issues, particularly the role of personal morality versus institutional arrangements for maintaining proper political order.Their similarities and differences make the two thinkers an ideal pair for comparative analysis, as together they present the significant portion of the intellectual spectrum of the late Warring States. Xunzi:The Ruler and the Regent Xunzi is certainly the single most important architect of the imperial political culture.A scholar who tried his best to synthesize moral guidelines of the Ru 儒 tradition with practical demands of the late Warring States politics, 82 Xunzi incorporated and creatively reinterpreted many ideas of his predecessors , with whom he was often engaged in fierce syn- and diachronic polemics .1 In what follows, I outline Xunzi’s monarchistic sentiments, show his awareness of the inadequacy of the current rulers, and then discuss the ways in which this thinker sought to limit the potential damage caused by the rulers ’ ineptitude. The Summa of Monarchism Xunzi’s support of monarchism is so elaborate and manifold that, by itself, it can serve as an excellent summary of the arguments presented in Chapter 2. First, he unequivocally asserts that an organized state under a single ruler is the precondition for the proper functioning of the social order;hence ancient sages established them as the means to cope with the inherently bad nature of human beings.2 Xunzi explains the blessed impact of the ruler: In their lives the people cannot but create collectives; when they create collectives , but there are no divisions/distinctions (fen 分),3 there is contention; contention, and then chaos; chaos, and then separation; separation, and then weakness; when [the people] are weak, they cannot overcome things; hence they cannot obtain palaces and houses to dwell in.This is why it is said that ritual and propriety cannot be abandoned for the shortest while....He who is able to employ his subjects is called the ruler.The ruler (君, *kun) is the one who is good at [making people] flock together into a collective (群, *ghun).When the way of creating the collective is correct, then the myriad things obtain what is proper [for them], the six kinds of animals obtain their longevity, all the living creatures obtain their predestined [lifespan].4 This passage succinctly presents Xunzi’s major concept of the ruler’s pivotal importance.It is the ruler whose presence makes the social pyramid work, ensuring thereby the proper functioning of the entire social order, making the human collective viable. Significantly, this function is performed by the ruler ex officio and is not linked to his moral qualities.The ruler’s contribution to the social order is twofold. First, he is able to “employ his subjects,” which means among other things restricting them and preventing their avarice from destroying the social fabric. Second, the ruler tops the sociopolitical pyramid , manifesting by his very existence the importance of social gradations. This role, in turn, explains Xunzi’s intensive preoccupation with preserving the ritual prerogatives of the sovereign and maintaining his distinct sumptuary privileges. The ruler’s...

Share