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NOTES introduction 1. Léopold Cadière, Croyances et pratiques religieuses des vietnamiens, 1:16. 2. Vũ Ngo ˙ c Khánh and Ngô Ч´c Thi ˙ nh, eds., T§´ Ba½t T§ª (Four Immortals), p. 9. 3. ‘‘Rapport de l’Administrateur Résident de H§ng Yên, France,’’ in Monographie de la province de H§ng Yên, Centre des archives d’outre-mer, Aix-enProvence , France (hereafter CAOM), RST/NF, file 01383. 4. On the composition of this pantheon, see Ngô Ч´c Thi ˙ nh, ‘‘The Pantheon for the Cult of Holy Mothers,’’ pp. 20–35. 5. The appellation ‘‘Vietnam’’ will be used very loosely in this book. It will be applied to the territory constituting modern Vietnam regardless of the changes in name that territory has undergone during its history. Exceptions will occur only when the country or its parts are referred to differently in the original sources. 6. Adriano di St. Thecla, Opusculum de sectis apud sinenses et tunkinenses (A Small Treatise on the Sects among the Chinese and Tonkinese), pp. 64–66. 7. Aihara Ichirosuke relates the first use of the term shūkyō to be a borrowing from German, while Suzuki Norihisa considers it to be a borrowing from English . See James E. Ketelaar, Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and Its Persecution, p. 240, nn. 120–121. 8. Nguyen Tu Cuong, Zen in Medieval Vietnam: A Study and Translation of the ‘‘Thie¼n Uye¡n Tâ ˙ p Anh’’, p. 7. 9. I adopt the term ‘‘popular religion’’ or ‘‘popular cults’’ not to distinguish between ‘‘commoner’’ and ‘‘elite’’ religions but out of necessity to distinguish the tradition to which Liê ˜u Ha ˙ nh’s cult belongs from major ecclesiastical traditions. 10. Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy, chapters 4 and 5. 11. Under ‘‘ritual’’ I also imply here festivals, sacrifices, and séances, which repeated regularly have become a tradition. 12. Jonathan Z. Smith, To Take Place: Toward Theory in Ritual, p. 103. 13. The responses to this survey are kept at the Institute of Social Sciences and Information (Viê ˙ n Thông Tin Khóa Ho ˙ c Xã Hô ˙ i, hereafter VTTKHXH) in Hanoi in the series Tha¼n Tı́ch Tha¼n Sa£c (The Treasury of Hagiographies and Royal Deification Decrees). Hereafter this series is referred to as VTTKHXH— TTTS). 14. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, pp. 41–42, 59–60. 15. Rodney Stark, ‘‘Why Gods Should Matter in Social Science.’’ 16. E. Martin Ahern, Chinese Ritual and Politics, pp. 4–11. 17. Ðı̀nh Gia Khánh, ‘‘Ý Nghı̃a Xã Hô ˙ i và Chı́nh Tri ˙ cuªa Viê ˙ c Nghiên C§´u Văn Hóa Dân Gian’’ (The Social and Political Significance of the Study of Folklore), p. 9. 18. See my introduction in St. Thecla, Opusculum, pp. 42–47. 19. Vladimir J. Propp, Morphologie du conte, p. 131. 20. Gustave Langrand, Vie sociale et religieuse en Annam: Monographie d’un village de la côte Sud-Annam, p. 73. 21. The University of Chicago historian of China Prasenjit Duara has discussed the Chinese God of War, Guandi, in somewhat similar terms (‘‘Superscribing Symbols: The Myth of Guandi, Chinese God of War,’’ pp. 778–795). However, his analysis differs from mine in not distinguishing between ritual form and narrative content and in appealing to an abstract model of what he calls superscription in an apparent effort to avoid the denial of continuity when new versions of the deity appear. He considers general features of a popular cult, namely, the deification of a hero and the deity’s role as a guardian for humans against various kinds of problems, to give a cult continuity through time. I agree that these aspects are relatively stable, but I would consider them part of the fundamental ritual environment in which cults exist, aspects of the ‘‘form’’ of cultic practice and not a part of the narrative content of a cult that change dramatically from generation to generation and that Duara calls ‘‘symbols’’ or ‘‘versions.’’ 22. Maurice Durand, Technique et panthéon des médiums viêtnamiens. 23. Pierre J. Simon and Ida Simon-Barouh, Ha¼u Bóng: Un culte viêtnamien de possession transplanté en France. 24. Ngô Ч´c Thi ˙ nh, ed., Ða ˙ o Ma±u ƒªViê ˙ t Nam (The Way of the Mothers in Vietnam). 25. While there are innumerable such works, I will mention here only three works reproducing Liê ˜u Ha ˙ nh...