Creating a Public: People and Press in Meiji Japan

Notes

403 Notes INTRODUCTION 1. Quoted in Norman Isaacs, Untended Gates: The Mismanaged Press, p. 219. 2. James W. Carey, “The Problems of Journalism History,” p. 52. 3. Tokutomi Sohò, Shòrai no Nihon, p. 106, trans. in Vinh Sinh, The Future Japan, p. 169. 4. See Ariyama Teruo, Tokutomi Sohò to Kokumin Shimbun, pp. 151–156, for a discussion of this attitude. 5. The most relevant works by these authors are Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period and Shinpen Meiji seishin shi; Mikiso Hane, Peasants, Rebels and Outcastes: The Underside of Modern Japan; Patricia Tsurumi, Factory Girls: Women in the Thread Mills of Meiji Japan; Okamoto Shumpei, “The Emperor and the Crowd” and The Japanese Oligarchy and the Russo-Japanese War; Tetsuo Najita, Hara Kei in the Politics of Compromise, 1905– 1915; Andrew Gordon, Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan; Michael Lewis, Citizens and Rioters: Mass Protest in Imperial Japan; and Carol Gluck, Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period. 6. See John Pierson, Tokutomi Sohò, 1863– 1957: A Journalist for Modern Japan; Sinh Vinh, Tokutomi Sohò (1863– 1957): The Later Career; Kenneth Pyle, The New Generation in Meiji Japan; James L. Huffman, Politics of the Meiji Press: The Life of Fukuchi Gen’ichirò; D. Eleanor Westney , Imitation and Innovation: The Transfer of Western Organizational Patterns to Meiji Japan; and Albert Altman, “The Press and Social Cohe- 404 Notes to Pages 4– 7 sion during a Period of Change: The Case of Early Meiji Japan.” The earlier overall histories of the Meiji press are Kisaburò Kawabe, The Press and Politics in Japan (1921), and Harry E. Wildes, The Press and Social Currents in Japan (1927). 7. Their works, too numerous to list here, are found in the bibliography . The work that looks most intensely at people-press issues is Yamamoto Taketoshi’s Shimbun to minshû. 8. Uchikawa Yoshimi, “Kindai shimbun shi kenkyû hòhò ron,” pp. 58–59. The one Western scholar who has treated the role of the Asian press in stimulating nationalism is Benedict Anderson, in Imagined Communities : Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. He talks a good deal about “print-as-commodity” as “the key to the generation of wholly new ideas of simultaneity” (p. 37) and the “profound fictiveness” of newspapers that enables them to construct stories that stimulate new communities (p. 33), but he makes no direct application of his ideas to the Japanese press. 9. See Lawrence Beer, Freedom of Expression in Japan; Gregory Kasza, The State and the Mass Media in Japan, 1918– 1945 (which deals more with the Meiji era than the title implies); Richard Mitchell, Censorship in Imperial Japan; and Jay Rubin, Injurious to Public Morals: Writers and the Meiji State. 10. See especially his Hikka shi (1911) as well as his other works in the bibliography. 11. Okano Takeo, citing Fukuzawa’s Seiyò jijò (Things Western), in Meiji genron shi, p. 9. 12. Ono Hideo, “Meiji shoki ni okeru shuppan jiyû no gainen,” p. 83. 13. Midoro Masaichi, ed., Meiji Taishò shi: genron hen, p. 1. Genron can be translated variously as “press,” “debate,” “expression,” “discussion .” Midoro uses it in its broader sense here. 14. Carey, p. 53. Emphasis added. 15. Douglass Cater, Power in Washington, cited in Richard W. Lee, ed., Politics and the Press, pp. 108–109. 16. E. Lloyd Sommerlad, The Press in Developing Countries, p. 9. 17. In Elihu Katz and Tamas Szecsko, eds., Mass Media and Social Change, p. 9. 18. Motoyama Hikoichi, address at Mainichi, 1924, quoted in Iwai Hajime, Shimbun to shimbunjin, p. 126. 19. For discussions of the press’ role in shaping opinion, see Robin H. Lee, “Media and Change,” in J. A. F. Van Zyl and K. G. Tomaselli, eds., Media and Change, pp. 51–55; also Richard W. Lee, Politics and the Press, pp. 99–100. Notes to Pages 7– 12 405 20. Quoted in Robert McCormick, The Freedom of the Press, p. 11. 21. Wilbur Schramm, Mass Media and National Development, pp. 42–44. 22. The subscription number becomes seventy-two million if one counts morning and evening editions separately. Each Japanese household subscribes to an average of 1.24 papers. Figures are for 1994, compiled by the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, The Japanese Press ’95, p. 90. See also Hayashi Toshitaka, “The Japanese Newspaper—Its Past, Present, and Future,” p. 108. 23. Katz and Szecsko, p...