Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines

Notes

315 Notes Chapter 1: a World apart? 1. Cushner, Spain in the Philippines; Hidalgo Nuchera, Encomienda; Noone, Discovery and Conquest; Phelan, Hispanization. 2. Costa, Jesuits; Fernández, History of the Church; Rafael, Contracting Colonialism. 3. Denevan, Native Population, xxix; Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 415. Estimates for the native population of the Americas in 1492 range from as low as Alfred Kroeber’s 8.4 million (Kroeber, Cultural and Natural Areas, 166) to Henry Dobyns’s 90 to 112.5 million (Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population ,” 415). Denevan’s estimate of about 54 million in 1492 is preferred since it is based on a review of recent research on each major region of the Americas. 4. Phelan, “Free Versus Compulsory Labor,” 192. 5. Phelan, Hispanization, 100–102, and “Free Versus Compulsory Labor,” 192–194. 6. Corpuz, Roots, 1: 54, 529, suggests between 1 million to 1.25 million, and De Bevoise, Agents, 18, no more than 1.2 million. Other authors suggest lower estimates. Believing the early accounts to be exaggerated, David Barrows (“History of Population,” 411, 442–443) suggests there were only 500,000 to 750,000, while Anthony Reid (“Low Population Growth,” 36) estimates that the population of Luzon and the Visayas in 1600 was 800,000. These estimates are nearly all based on the list of encomiendas drawn up in 1591 (AGI PAT 25-38 fols. 6–9 and BR 8: 105 Relación punctual de las encomiendas 31 May 1591), which includes only 100 tributaries in Mindanao. 7. VanderMeer, “Population Patterns,” 315–337; Cullinane and Xenos, “Growth of Population in Cebu,” 80–105; Martínez Cuesta, History of Negros, 42–51, 105–110. 8. Reid, “Low Population Growth.” 9. N. David Cook (Demographic Collapse, 70) has shown how six major epidemics in the sixteenth century might have reduced the population of Peru by between 79 and 92 percent. For a discussion of the impact of Old World diseases in the Americas, see Crosby, “Virgin Soil Epidemics”; Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population ,” 410–414; Cook, Born to Die; Cook and Lovell, ‘Secret Judgments of God’. The scale and timing of their impact remain issues of debate (Roberts, “Disease and Death,” 1245–1247; Henige, Numbers from Nowhere, 167–183). 10. Doeppers, “Hispanic Influences,” 61; Larkin, Pampangans, 16; Owen, Death and Disease, 9; Phelan, Hispanization, 106, 156; Reid, Southeast Asia, 1: 57–58. 11. Fernández Arias, Paralelo, 21–28. 12. Phelan, “Free Versus Compulsory Labor,” 190, 192. 13. Bauzon, Deficit Government. 14. Phelan, Hispanization, 13. See also Fernández Arias, Paralelo, 31, and Spate, Spanish Lake, 157. 15. AGI AF 74 and BR 7: 29–51 passim Domingo de Salazar 25 June 1588. 16. For succinct accounts of these voyages, see Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 21–45, and Isles of the West, 29–56; Noone, Discovery and Conquest, 261–399 passim. 17. For Legazpi’s instructions see CDIU 2: 145–200 Instructions to Legazpi 1 Sept. 1564, which are summarized in BR 2: 89–100. The Augustinian friar Andrés de Urdaneta questioned whether the Philippines fell in Portuguese jurisdiction, but the Crown did not seem to be unduly bothered by this potential area of dispute (Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, 41). 18. Hanke, Spanish Struggle, 31–36. 19. Seed, Ceremonies, 71–97. 20. Hanke, Aristotle, 28–73, and Spanish Struggle, 111–132. 21. CDI 16: 152 Ordenanzas de Su Magestad 13 July 1573; Recopilación 2 lib. 4 tit. 1 ley 6: 2 11 June 1621. 22. CDIU 3: 325–329 Petición . . . Miguel de Legazpi [1567]; Hidalgo Nuchera, Encomienda, 30–31. 23. AGI AF 339 lib.1 fols. 1r–2v and BR 34: 236 Carta real 16 Nov. 1568. 24. AGI AF 339 lib. 1 fols. 175r–176r Real cédula 1 Apr. 1580. 25. Hanke, Spanish Struggle, 152, 158; Costa, “Church and State,” 319, 334. 26. Phelan, “Some Ideological Aspects”; Costa, “Church and State”; Hanke, Spanish Struggle, 139–146, and Cuerpo de documentos, xxxix–li. 27. AGI AF 339 lib. 1 fols. 57v–58r Real cédula 7 Nov. 1574, AF 339 lib. 1 fols. 181–184v Real cédula 24 Apr. 1580, AF 339 lib. 1 fol. 193v Real cédula 9 Aug. 1589; Gayo Aragón, “Ideas jurídico-teológicos,” 201, 205. 28. The ban was issued in 1679 (AGI AF 24-28 Real Cédula 12 June 1679) but only became fully effective in 1692 (Cortes, Pangasinan, 88; Scott, Slavery, 36–38, 61). 29. BR 19: 235–246 Hernando R...