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T he origins of Buddhist steles can be traced to two momentous events that occurred during the last two decades of the fifth century: (1) the emergence of Buddhist devotional societies and (2) the first appropriation of Chinese tablets for Buddhist use. These two events are documented at two principal Buddhist cave-temple sites associated with the Northern Wei: Yungang at Datong (the first Northern Wei capital from 386 to 494), and Longmen near Luoyang (the second Northern Wei capital from 495 to 534), respectively. Buddhist devotional groups were fashioned after indigenous Chinese she organizations, and these groups were among the first patrons to employ Chinese tablets to record their faith. In the sixth century, these Buddhist associations became the chief sponsors of Buddhists steles, which became popularly used in northern China, especially in territories directly under Northern Wei administration. It is therefore safe to say that the beginnings as well as the first flourishing of Buddhist steles were both legacies of the Northern Wei. The Northern Wei, founded by the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei people, unified northern China in 439 and created one of the strongest nomadic empires of this period for about a century. The dynasty’s cultural and religious policies were instrumental in creating social and cultural conditions favorable for the deepening of exchanges between indigenous Chinese and Buddhist traditions, and among populations of different ethnic and social groups. Implementation of a Chinese-style administration and bureaucracy facilitated the rehabilitation of rural life and agriculture after centuries of warfare, while state sponsorship of Buddhism enabled the rapid penetration of the religion into the northern countryside. In the process, indigenous social and religious practices were revitalized, but under the auspices of the new religious faith. Lay Buddhists organized themselves into voluntary associations, called yi or yiyi, modeled after the preBuddhist yishe or lishe (see chap. 2). Affiliated with local temples, these groups raised many Buddhist steles that served as monuments commemorating the collective groups’ religious, social, and territorial identity. This chapter begins with summaries of the historical background that led to rise of the Northern Wei, the nomadic empire’s cultural and religious heritages and policies, and the character of Buddhism and Buddhist art during this period. This is followed by a detailed analysis of the emergence of yiyi Buddhist devotional societies at both Yungang and Longmen , and the Buddhist use of Chinese tablets at the latter site. The concurrent emergence of Buddhist yiyi devotional societies and Buddhist steles under the Northern Wei affirms the chapter three THE ORIGINS OF BUDDHIST STELES UNDER THE NORTHERN WEI 44 origins of buddhist steles observation that the Buddhist adaptation of the Chinese tablet, the quintessential Chinese monument, occurred only when Buddhism became fully integrated into Chinese society. Individual donors and families also commissioned Buddhist steles, but group patronage by Buddhist associations was the norm. In addition to major sites directly associated with the Northern Wei, other well-established centers of Buddhist art, such as Chang’an in Shaanxi and Chengdu in Sichuan, have yielded experimental forms of Buddhist steles in the fifth century. However, the dating of these early examples remains uncertain, and the flourishing of Buddhist steles in those regions did not occur until the sixth century. These isolated examples are considered in the contexts of their respective regional traditions in chapters 7 and 10. historical background of the northern wei Since ancient times, the sedentary Chinese had had close interactions with their northern and western neighbors who led a nomadic or pastoral way of life.1 From the time of the Later Han period, nomadic tribesmen began to advance south, a process that contributed to and accelerated after the disintegration of the Han empire. In one estimate, some ten million people from the steppes settled in northern China between the fourth and sixth centuries.2 Nomadic invasions caused widespread political and social upheaval. Luoyang fell in 311 and Chang’an in 316, signifying the loss of the whole of northern China to alien rule. From the fall of the Han dynasty in 220 c.e. to the reestablishment of a unified empire under the Sui dynasty, this period of about four centuries is known as a period of disunion. Nomadic peoples set up numerous short-lived, petty kingdoms in the north while displaced Chinese migrated south and established dynastic rule at Jiankang (present-day Nanjing). The major nomadic tribes that overran the north included the Xiongnu, or the Huns; the Xianbei, of mixed Turkish and proto-Mongolian stock...

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