Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis

Chapter Two. Epistemology

Chapter Two Epistemology In his search for the truth about human existence motivated by a desire for release from the suffering inherent in it, Siddhattha Gotama is said to have visited teacher after teacher learning whatever he could from each. He became conversant with the various philosophies as well as the religious practices current at the time. The ascetic (sama!1a) culture was in its ascendency in the lower Ganges valley, and rather early in his life Gotama seems to have had some training in yogic meditation.! Moreover, the last two teachers under whom he had training in spiritual matters before he finally attained enlightenment are said to have instructed him in the art ofyogic meditation or contemplation . By the time he accepted yogic meditation and therefore had become aware of the extrasensory powers that could be developed by such means, Gotama had already realized the limitations of sense perception as a source of knowledge. Moreover, as is evident from texts like the Kiiliima-sutta,2 people had already begun to suspect the validity of reasoning (takka) and logic (naya) as means ofarriving at a knowledge oftruth and reality. And for Gotama, even yogic contemplation and extrasensory powers were limited in scope, and he realized that these powers were misused by the ascetics who formulated metaphysical theories about the nature of reality, though such theories could not be posited on the basis of these extrasensory perceptions .3 The situation seems therefore to have been extremely complicated, and Gotama, after his enlightenment, made an attempt to clarify the various sources ofknowledge, pointing out their limitations as well as their validity, but did not fall into the extreme of agnosticism, as did one of his predecessors in the ascetic traditionSaiijaya Bellanhiputta. In chapter 1 it was pointed out that the pre-Buddhist thinkers fall into three classes-Traditionalists, Rationalists, and Experientialists -according to the stress laid on a particular way ofknowing.4 The Traditionalists, it was mentioned, derived their knowledge 16 wholly from a scriptural tradition and interpretation based on it. These were the brahmans who upheld the sacred authority of the divinely revealed Vedas. Buddha's criticism of divine revelation and ofseveral other sources ofknowledge is to be found in the Cankl-sutta of the Majjhima-nikiiya.5 Here he is represented as saying: There are five things which have a twofold result in this life. What five? [Knowledge based on] faith, likes, revelation, superficial reflection, and approval of a theory thought about ... , even if I hear something on the profoundest revelation (sviinussutalfl), that may be empty, hollow and false, while what I do not hear on the profoundest revelation may be factual (bhiitalfl), true and not otherwise. It is not proper for an intelligent person, safeguarding the truth, to come categorically (ekalflsena) to the conclusion (nitfhalfl) in this matter that this alone is true and whatever else is false (idam eva saccalfl mogham annalfl). On the contrary, If a person has heard [from revelation, tradition or report], then in saying "this is what I have heard" [from revelation, tradition or reportj, he safeguards the truth, so long as he does not come categorically to the conclusion that it alone is true and whatever else is false. The Buddha is here asserting that a theory based on tradition or report or revelation can be either true or false. In the absence ofany guarantee ofits truth or falseness, it is not proper to depend on the theory as a valid means ofknowledge. Hence, on the basis of such knowledge one should not come to definite decisions regarding the nature of reality. Therefore, as the Buddha points out, one should suspend judgment, and that means rejection of tradition or revelation as a valid source ofknowledge. This same attitude was adopted by the Buddha with regard to the theories formulated by the Rationalists on the basis of reasoning (takka) or logical argument (naya). According to the Sandaka-sutta of the Majjhima-nikiiya,6 one of the four types of religions which are said to be unsatisfactory (anassiisika) but not necessarily false is that based on reason and speculation (takka, vlmalflsii). It is said: "Herein... EPISTEMOLOGY 17 a certain teacher is a reasoner and investigator; he teaches a doctrine which is self-evident and is the product ofreasoning and speculation. But in the case of a person who reasons and speculates, his reasoning may be good or bad, true or false." Thus, according...