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121 chapter six Conclusion I suggest there are conceptual resources in Chinese philosophy that promote a wider, more inclusive perspective and that encourages [sic] its readers to think of the self in terms of its interdependencies and relationships. —Karyn Lai, “Understanding Change”1 In an environment of increasing social mobility and political centralization, intellectuals from the fifth through the third centuries BCE put forth competing conceptions of human agency, each of which presented a different view of the sources of authority and power that underlie an individual agent’s actions. This book draws connections between the growth of a universalistic conception of the self in relationship to Heaven’s—or cosmic—authority and power. Such a universalized conception of the self was epitomized in an elaborate discussion concerning xing (human nature), which spawned the growth of a relational form of individualism in early China. It also shows how an integrated conception of the self and cosmos brought into being a discussion about internal vs. external sources of authority in self-cultivation and in political theory. This latter concern and manner of dichotomizing agency and control can be found in a variety of late Warring States writings, which include claims for one extreme over the other, as well as syncretic positions that accommodate the powers of both types of authorities. The form of individualism that emerged from the context of these discussions involved not so much the radical autonomy of the self as the innate power of the individual to fulfill his or her own proper relationships with the cosmos. In other words, it involved viewing the individual body and self as the primary source of cosmic authority in the world. This type of individualism, moreover, did not necessarily develop into widespread 122 Individualism in Early China individualistic movements in later times, although it did remain a part of the core intellectual traditions in East Asia for more than two thousand years.2 Instead of developing directly into more extreme individualistic movements, some individualistic ideals became incorporated as early as the Qin and Han periods into a hierarchical system of authority supported by the newly formed imperial state. At this time of empire building, authors incorporated individualistic ideals into their vision of how the centralized state should function, and in particular how a ruler should cultivate himself as head of state. By the early imperial period, other individualistic ideals became incorporated into comprehensive theories about sagely cultivation that included the guidance of cultural and institutional traditions as well as cosmic determinations stemming from within the individual body. The early Mohists of the fourth century BCE advocated the equal relationship of all individuals to Heaven’s standards and system of justice. Such a belief attempted to unite all humans uniformly with a single source of divine authority. By promoting man’s upward conformity to Heaven’s standards , early Mohists universalized human responsibilities and obligations, thus unifying individuals in terms of similar goals and behavioral norms. At the same time, the early Mohist rhetoric of upward conformity spoke to the fundamental power of each individual to take responsibility for his or her own actions, and it spoke as well to the more universal potential of humans to achieve some level of moral character and wisdom through the exercise and fulfillment of one’s judgment. By supporting universal obligation to Heaven as mediated through a single, centralized system of political and legal authority, the early Mohists paved the way for critical developments in beliefs on individual authority and power in years to come. A slew of other writings that date from the fourth century BCE joined early Mohist writings in placing humans under the authority of a single higher power that is expressed in systematic ways. It is perhaps not a mere coincidence that so many different texts from around this time assume a similar stance toward human relationship to the divine cosmos. Indeed, one might concur with Aihe Wang that the creation of new forms of cosmology was deeply intertwined with the project of empire formation.3 In such a light, changes we see in fourth-century BCE intellectual orientations are perhaps instrumental in—as well as reflective of—the political changes occurring in states across the Central Plains at the time. We might thus view the unification of human relationship to a single, idealized source of authority as a harbinger of a new cosmological orientation. According to this orientation , all individuals alike are to participate more directly in a shared cosmic system...

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