Death, Mourning, and the Afterlife in Korea: Ancient to Contemporary Times

Chapter 4 Ways of Burial in Koryŏ Times

83 4 Ways of Burial in Koryŏ Times Charlotte Horlyck When King T’aejo (r. 918–943), the first ruler of Koryŏ, died, his remains were interred in a small chamber built for the purpose in the mountains west of Kaesŏng, the capital of the new kingdom. Made of stone slabs and covered with a small earth mound, the interior of the tomb bore murals depicting the Four Guardian Animals (四神 sasin) alongside paintings of pine, plum, and bamboo—the so-called Three Friends of Winter symbolizing longevity and perseverance. Its exterior was encircled by stone slabs with carvings of the twelve zodiac animals, while stone sculptures of officials and tigers were placed at its front (fig. 4.1).1 The Koryŏsa (高麗史 History of Koryŏ) notes that the tomb was made in accordance with Han (206 BCE–220 CE) and Wei (220–265) imperial tomb regulations,2 but in reality it bore closer resemblance to those of T’aejo’s conquered predecessors—the rulers of Greater Silla. The initial source of inspiration for the external form of Greater Silla royal tombs lay in the imperial mausoleums of the Tang dynasty (618–907), which had in fact been modeled after the colossal tomb complexes of Western Han (206 BCE–9 CE) emperors,3 but such Han elements are little discernible in Korean royal tombs, including T’aejo’s. T’aejo’s descendants appear to have been little concerned with these historical inconsistencies, since the structure and layout of his tomb came to serve as a prototype not only for tombs of later kings but also for those of their wives and other members of the upper echelons of society. The fact that the king was interred in a manner that was undeniably rooted in the customary 84 / Charlotte Horlyck ways of Greater Silla says much about the need for tradition during times of adversity and change, an approach that was not unique to the aristocracy but also shared by commoners, whose burials similarly resembled those of their ancestors. Written sources and archaeological remains present a complex and to some extent equally paradoxical image of Koryŏ mortuary customs that contradict the general perception that cremation was the conventional and most common form of disposal due to the widespread support of Buddhism during this time. In reality it was not practiced by all, as also suggested by Sem Vermeersch in this volume. Rather, historical and, in particular, archaeological records indicate that the dead were disposed of in a variety of ways that, in addition to cremation, include interment in stone chamber (sŏksil 石室) tombs and in different types of pit graves. Furthermore, in some cases the body was exposed as a means to remove the flesh in a manner commonly known as p’ungjang (風葬, literally “wind burial”), after which the bones were either scattered or buried. Extant historical sources reveal little in terms of which criteria undermined the preference for one method of disposal over another. In contrast to the Chosŏn dynasty, when rituals were detailed in written form and all aspects of mortuary rites were regulated according to NeoConfucian ideas of proper ritual procedures, this was not the case in Figure 4.1 Tomb of King T’aejo, Kaesŏng. (Chosŏn Yujŏk Yumul Togam P’yŏnch’an Wiwŏnhoe, Pukhan ŭi munhwajae, 94‒95) Ways of Burial in Koryŏ Times / 85 Koryŏ times.4 Rather, the introduction to the chapter on state funerals (kukhyul 國恤) states that Koryŏ people did not make rules for state funerals. Instead, “old records” were consulted and former practices were followed, and apparently no records were left of the events.5 In the Koryŏsa the chapter on funerary rites is included in the section titled “Treatise on Rites” (Yeji 禮志), and it centers mainly on consolation and mourning rites rather than burial rites (changnye 葬禮).6 The chapter also makes references to “state funerals” (kukchang 國葬, yejang 禮葬, kwanjang 官葬) that were held for members of the influential capital elite, but no details are provided as to how they were carried out.7 In fact the only regulations regarding mortuary practices that are recorded in the Koryŏsa concern the size of tombs made for civil and military officials.8 Thus, in contrast to Chosŏn rulers, who set down guidelines detailing how each step of the funeral proceedings should be conducted, from the appropriate method of interment to correct ways of mourning, and lamented...