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Before becoming the second socialist country in the world (after the Soviet Union) in 1921, Mongolia had been a Buddhist feudal theocracy. Combatting the influence of the dominant Buddhist establishment to win the hearts and minds of the Mongolian people was one of the most important challenges faced by the new socialist government. It would take almost a decade and a half to resolve the “lama question,” and it would be answered with brutality, destruction, and mass killings. Chris Kaplonski examines this critical, violent time in the development of Mongolia as a nation-state and its ongoing struggle for independence and recognition in the twentieth century. Kaplonski draws on a decade of research and archival resources to investigate the problematic relationships between religion and politics and geopolitics and biopolitics in early socialist Mongolia, as well as the multitude of state actions that preceded state brutality.

Table of Contents

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  1. Cover
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  1. Title page, Copyright, Dedication
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  1. Contents
  2. pp. vii-viii
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  1. Acknowledgments
  2. pp. ix-x
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  1. Note on Transliteration
  2. pp. xi-xii
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  1. Dramatis Personae and Terms
  2. pp. xiii-xvii
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  1. Map of Mongolian Provinces
  2. p. xviii
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  1. Introduction: There Are No Counterrevolutionaries Here
  2. pp. 3-25
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  1. 1. Technologies of Exception, Governmentality, and the Contingent State
  2. pp. 26-44
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  1. 2. The Geopolitics of Exception
  2. pp. 45-62
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  1. Part I. The First Technology of Exception: The Construction of the New
  1. 3. Women, Literacy, and Other Dangerous Things
  2. pp. 65-84
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  1. 4. Counting (on) the Living Gods
  2. pp. 85-103
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  1. 5. Samdan, the Special Commission, and the Rule of Law
  2. pp. 104-121
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  1. 6. Rebellions, War, and Aftermaths
  2. pp. 122-140
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  1. Part II. The Second Technology of Exception: Ineffective Persuasions and Accommodation
  1. 7. Surveillance and Control: The Religious Administration and the Government Representatives
  2. pp. 143-163
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  1. 8. A Tale of Two Lamas: Gonchigjantsan and Agvaanjamyan
  2. pp. 164-180
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  1. Part III. The Third Technology of Exception: The Turn to Violence, Resignation, and Defeat
  1. 9. The Yonzon Hamba and the Center Counterrevolutionary Group
  2. pp. 183-202
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  1. 10. Closed and Destroyed Monasteries: The Aftermath
  2. pp. 203-222
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  1. Conclusion: Violence and the Contingent State
  2. pp. 223-230
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  1. Notes
  2. pp. 231-240
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  1. Reference List
  2. pp. 241-250
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  1. Index
  2. pp. 251-263
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