Paleonutrition

2. The Paleonutrition Data Base: Direct Data

chapter 2 The Paleonutrition Data Base Direct Data in this chapter, we discuss the kinds of data that relate directly to human paleonutrition, or those data that do not require an inference to be linked to human diet and health (see Sutton 1994). Direct data are relatively uncommon components of archaeological sites and are currently limited to two basic categories: (1) the study of human remains, including the analysis of pathology and chemistry, and (2) the study of human paleofeces. Human Remains Human remains consist of the bones, soft tissue, hair, and/or chemical products of humans and may contain direct evidence of paleonutrition. Most human remains studied by anthropologists consist of skeletal materials and a great deal of effort has been invested in studying bones, including cremations. Unfortunately, the skeleton is probably the least sensitive indicatorofnutritionalstatus ,particularlyforadults(e.g.,Allen1984).Fragmentary human remains, especially those commingled with other materials, from a site pose additional challenges, and an analytical approach similar to that of faunal remains could be productive (Outram et al. 2005). The majority of work on human remains has been focused on paleopathology where evidence of specific diseases, trauma (including injuries related to warfare), deformation, and nutrition may be identified. Paleopathology employs a variety of data sets, primarily the analysis of bone and soft tissues, but may include other inferential data. Recent reviews of this field were provided by Bush and Zvelebil (1991), Ortner (1991), Roberts (1991), Boyd (1996), Larsen (1997, 2000, 2002), Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín (1998), Lovell (2000), Walker (2001), Roberts and Manchester (2007), and Waldron (2007). Several interesting case studies drawing on diverse lines of biological data were presented by Wright and White (1996) and Larsen (1994, 1998). 26 paleonutrition Disease is the most significant factor in human morbidity and mortality . The detection and identification of diseases in individuals and of disease patterns in populations are primary goals in paleopathological analyses. Juveniles are more heavily impacted by disease than adults and an understanding of juvenile morbidity and mortality can serve as an indicator for the health of the population as a whole (see Martin et al. 1991:125). Skeletal Analysis In life, the human skeleton will “respond to a broad range of stimuli, ranging from environmental and hereditary stresses to mechanical usage” (Stout 1989:41), and will preserve a unique record of past metabolic events. Morphological features on bone may contain a patterned record of five basic phenomena: “general growth; mechanical usage during growth and adult life; nutrition; genetics; and general health and acquired disease” (Frost 1985:222). Some of the inferences that can be gained from the analysis of skeletal remains include living conditions, cultural interactions, population movements, and changes in nutrition and health over time (see Huss-Ashmore et al. 1982; Larsen 1987, 1997, 2000, 2002; Ribot and Roberts 1996; Mays 1998; Goodman and Martin 2002). Examples of changes over time may include shifts in economic bases, such as from general hunting and gathering to specialized hunting and gathering (Lambert 1993) or from hunting and gathering to agriculture (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). The general techniques utilized in the analysis of individual skeletons include metric measurements to determine gross morphology (such as stature and sex), methods to measure bone development, and methods to determine and describe pathology (such as disease, trauma, deformation , and nutritional stress). The skeletons of subadults (adolescents, children , and infants) are morphologically different than those of adults and present their own analytical challenges (Scheuer and Black 2004; Baker et al. 2005). At the population level, demographic data, including stature, sex, age at death, and cause of death, can provide information regarding behavior in life, general health and diet, and a variety of other issues. Wood et al. (1992) cautioned, however, that these issues are complex and the translation of paleonutrition data base: direct data 27 skeletal data directly to conclusions on ancient demography and health is not straightforward, creating an “osteological paradox” in which these problematic issues could result in flawed conclusions. Recent work in bioarchaeology , both in methods and in analysis, provides optimism that these problems can be resolved (Wright and Yoder 2003; also see Larsen 2006). A variety of specialized techniques are available to study and evaluate the skeleton, including radiography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans, positron emission tomography (PET) scans, photon absorbiometry, gravimetric techniques, thin sections (dry and stained), microradiographed thin sections, macromeasurements , and micromeasurements. Each of these techniques was...