Military Engagement: Influencing Armed Forces Worldwide to Support Democratic Transitions

17. The Middle East and North Africa

325 17 The Middle East and North Africa Tannous Mouawad The countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region gained their independence from colonial rule as early as 1920 (Turkey) and as late as 1961 (Kuwait). Through the period of the cold war, the armed forces of the newly independent countries were shaped by their colonial heritage, by the ethnic and tribal nature of their populations, and by their cold war sponsors , either the United States and other NATO states or the Soviet Union. Democracies were few in number—Israel, Turkey, and for a time, Lebanon. Autocratic regimes ruled the rest of the region, some of them coming to power in military coups, and all supported by their military forces. There seemed to be little chance for democratic development in the region. The dictators, many of them former military men with Soviet sponsorship and Chinese assistance, faced no pressure to reform; America’s advocacy of democracy in the region was muted by cold war imperatives and undercut by its support for Israel. The end of the cold war in 1989 brought hope for democratic development: Soviet influence and assistance withered, the United States adopted the promotion of democracy as a policy objective, and a broad-based coalition of forces led by the United States pushed Iraqi troops out of Kuwait. For the next twenty years, although no new democracies emerged, forces for change were gathering beneath the surface. They flashed and were quenched in Lebanon in 2005 and Iran in 2009, then again erupted in 2011. 17-2478-0 ch17.indd 325 5/20/13 8:59 AM 326 TANNOUS MOUAWAD Peaceful protests challenged long-established dictators, and in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya military leaders turned on their former commanders and forced them from power. This chapter tells the story of military forces in the countries of the MENA region. It describes the influence of outside military contact and assistance in the past and recommends ways in which future military relations can support further democratic development. From Independence through the Cold War The end of the Ottoman and European empires in the Middle East and North Africa, following the two world wars and the rapid onset of the cold war, left a diverse set of political systems in the countries of the region: —Kingdoms: Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Morocco —Emirates: United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait, Oman —Authoritarian republics: Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Tunisia, Algeria —Democracies: Lebanon, Israel, Turkey —Islamic authoritarian republic: Iran The dominant religion, Islam, often provided national legitimacy but no natural basis for democratic development. Tribal divisions were met with authority and force rather than with minority rights. The Israeli threat provided a rationale for acquiring arms and for suppression of internal dissent. The primary purpose of the armed forces in most countries in the region was support for the regime and internal security. Frequently, military officers took power themselves, in both kingdoms and republics: Egypt in 1952, Iraq in 1958, Tunisia in 1957, Libya in 1969, Yemen in 1962, Algeria in 1954, and Syria in 1963. Often armed forces developed a powerful and superior status in S U D A N C H A D BURKINO FASO M A L I M A U R I TA N I A SENEGAL GAMBIA GUINEA WESTERN SAHARA M O R O C C O A L G E R I A L I B Y A TUNISIA N I G E R E G Y P T Y E M E N ERITREA OMAN I R A Q I R A N JORDAN S Y R I A ISRAEL LEBANON T U R K E Y ITALY S P A I N PORTUGAL BULGARIA TURKMENISTAN AZERBAIJAN ARMENIA GEORGIA GREECE ALBANIA F R A N C E YUGOSLAVIA QATAR BAHRAIN UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MACEDONIA CYPRUS S A U D I A R A B I A Middle East and North Africa 17-2478-0 ch17.indd 326 5/20/13 8:59 AM 327 THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA their countries, unaccountable and unapproachable by populations, who were led to fear them. Military judicial courts were instituted all over the region and had more power than the national civilian judiciary systems. In Syria, Iraq, and Iran the armed forces were also directly involved in the daily security affairs of the state. In Jordan, Egypt, and Tunisia internal security forces or police handled...