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2. The Protestant Challenge to Zoroastrianism
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47 2 The Protestant Challenge to Zoroastrianism I was somewhat convinced of my folly in worshipping the elements, which is quite contrary to reason. . . . I afterwards read Dr. Wilson’s lecture on the Vendidad Sadi and became convinced of the fallacy of the Parsi religion. —Dhanjibhai Nauroji, explaining why he converted to Christianity, ca. 1835–39 Scholarly interest in Zoroastrianism, the developing field of linguistics, and Christian missionary activity in India combined to form a powerful challenge to Zoroastrian religious tradition. Parsis were forced to reconsider their practices and beliefs in light of new scholarly analyses of their religious texts and practices. Parsi reformers, in seeking to “rationalize” their religion, were deeply influenced by Western notions of religion and by the conviction that rational, or “enlightened,” religion was responsible for “progress” and “civilization ”—tropes for social and political reform. Both Reformers and traditionalist Orthodox, while defending Zoroastrianism from missionary and scholarly attacks, adopted many of their presuppositions concerning the nature and function of religion in modern society. Despite the range of positions taken by the Zoroastrian community—from reform to retrenchment—all were deeply affected by the religious debates concerning the nature and function of “true” religion. The Parsi reform movement resulted in a serious reconceptualization of Zoroastrianism in India. It also shaped the intellectual and social context in which Parsis came to Iran and sponsored religious and social reforms there. 48 | Pious Citizens Western Perceptions of Zoroastrianism Western scholarly engagement in linguistics and ancient religions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to an interest in Zoroastrianism as one of the oldest world religions. Zoroastrianism, however, was not completely unknown before this time. From the outset, European travelers’ accounts of religion in India made clear distinctions between Hindu practices and Zoroastrianism. According to Hinnells, “It was easier to see Zoroastrianism as being in harmony with the beliefs and principles of the British and their current theological concerns than it was those of Hinduism, especially in the latter’s popular form. As a result each traveler tended to comment on the same features of Parsi religion, their monotheism, their lack of idols, their high moral standards and their attitude to fire. The Iranian origin of the community and dokhmas were also often commented on.”1 The very earliest known account was written in 1616–19 by Edward Terry, a chaplain in the service of the East India Company. Terry recounted, “[The Parsis ] believe that there is but one God, who made all things, and hath a sovereign power over all.”2 The author of the second known account, Rev. Henry Lord, also stressed Zoroastrianism as monotheistic and having a “Lawgiver” prophet similar to the Abrahamic tradition. He wrote, “Fire was delivered to Zertoost their Lawgiver from God Almighty, who pronounced it to bee his virtue and his excellencie, and that there was a lawe delivered for the worshippe of this fire, confirmed by so many Miracles, that therefore they should hold it holy, reverence and worshippe it as a part of God, who is of the same substance, and that they should love all things, that resemble it, or were like unto it, as the Sunne and Mone which proceeded from it, and are Gods.”3 European scholarship (as opposed to travelers’ accounts) on Zoroastrianism is generally dated to 1700 with the publication of the work of Oxford professor Thomas Hyde De vetere religione Persarum.4 Hyde maintained that Zoroaster had brought monotheism, repeating the work of Abraham.5 It was not until the middle of the eighteenth century, however, that portions of the Avesta were obtained and translated into European languages. Frenchman Anquetil Du Perron distinguished himself as the first European to meet with the Parsis of Surat, to study with Zoroastrian priests, and to obtain quantities of Avestan manuscripts .6 As a result, accounts of Zoroastrianism changed from travelers’ tales of [18.218.184.214] Project MUSE (2024-04-17 21:26 GMT) The Protestant Challenge to Zoroastrianism | 49 “curiosities and wonders,” or as a foil for denouncing Christian exceptionalism, to analyses that display an increased awareness of the sources and historicity of Zoroastrianism.7 As the Avesta became increasingly accessible to Western scholars and Zoroastrian priests, linguistic studies inaugurated debates concerning the dating of the Zoroastrian texts in the process of exploring the relationship between Iranian languages and Sanskrit.8 This discussion threw into question the authenticity and even authorship of some Zoroastrian texts that had been held sacred in the past, but were now accused of...