Climate Finance: Regulatory and Funding Strategies for Climate Change and Global Development

Index

Climate Finance 321 Index adaptation, 158–160, 167, 194 additionality, 68, 70, 72 American Clean Energy and Security Act (ACESA or ACES), 112, 213–220 baselines border climate adjustment (BCA), 266–271 border tax adjustment (BTA), 250, 268–269 business-as-usual baselines, 99, 130, 173, 176 sectoral/efficiency targets, 82, 87 bottom-up approach and environmental effectiveness, 172– 178, 179–185, 312 Brazil, 96–101, 159 capacity-building, 86, 144 cap-and-trade compared to carbon taxes, 57–66, 291–299 carbon credits. See offsets carbon footprint labeling (CFL), 281–287 carbon leakage, 263, 267, 274 carbon markets linkage between, 60, 130–131, 216–220, 222–227, 313 participation of developing countries in, 183–184, 311–314 carbon tax compared to cap-and-trade. See capand -trade Certified Emissions Reduction (CER). See Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) China, 158, 228–233, 235 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 49, 67–78, 81, 105–110, 112, 127–129, 140, 147, 176, 181, 183, 193–196, 218, 222, 224, 226, 256–257 achievements, 68, 86, 222, 224 criticism, 68, 70, 82, 97, 193, 225 reform, 72, 85, 128–129, 225–226 CLEAR, 111–121 mechanisms for disbursing funds, 117 climate change causes and consequences of, 35–41 costs of limiting, 46, 105–110, 137, 160 estimated emissions levels necessary to limit, 43, 98, 116, 136, 174 climate finance, 3–33 comparative advantage of mitigation in developing countries, 138, 183 and concerns about equity, 44, 91, 107, 190 and economic development, 158 and need for a global bargain, 168–171 required levels, 98, 105–110, 130, 137, 168 conditions on financing, 189–196, 197–205 in context of CLEAR, 113 cost-effectiveness, 201–202 criticisms of, 195, 207 effectiveness, 201, 207 equity, 203 and gap in North-South relations, 159, 190, 204, 207 and local implementation, 191, 208–209 and local ownership, 202–203, 207–208 deforestation. See reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) 322 Index distributional concerns carbon tax vs. cap-and-trade, 294–299 embedded/embodied carbon. See border climate adjustment (BCA); border tax adjustment (BTA); carbon footprint labeling (CFL) energy efficiency, 44, 141, 146, 148, 215, 243 European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), 58, 112, 126, 140, 217, 221– 227, 255, 257, 313 financing of capacity-building, 163, 175, 190 certainty and recurrence of, 209 full and incremental costs, 160–161 timing of, 209 flexibility in climate change agreements and Kyoto Protocol, 49 global warming. See climate change greenhouse gases historical responsibility for current stock and gap in North-South relations, 91, 158, 179, 313 relationship to global warming, 35–41 historical responsibility. See greenhouse gases India, 158–159, 175, 235 institutional framework and domestic politics, 159 fragmentation of, 167 governance structures of, 161–162, 165– 171, 172–178 representation of developing nations in, 162, 193–194 and transparency, 163, 194 insurance, 145 international trade and climate linkages, 272–280 and developing country concerns, 273–274 of environmental goods and services, 274, 277 and intellectual property rights, 274 monitoring of trade measures and potential barriers to trade, etc., 274–277 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 37, 260, 264 Kyoto Protocol lessons from, 48–56 labeling requirements and the TBT Agreement, 274 land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF), 80, 90–95, 96–101, 148– 150, 217 See also reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) McKinsey cost curve, 43, 45, 93, 136, 235 Mexico, 159 monitoring capabilities of WTO, 276–277 of embodied carbon across the supply chain, 278 and gap in North-South relations, 162–163 of mitigation actions, 119 of trade measures, 275–276 monitoring, verification, and reporting capacity-building, 275–276, 278 of NAMAs, 182–183 and use of appropriate policy instruments , 84, 169–170 multilateral finance difficulties of crafting equitable national targets, 98, 311 and gap in North-South relations, 160–161 Global Environment Facility (GEF), 68, 147, 161–162, 166, 169, 192–193, 198 Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund, 68 a stumbling block in larger debate, 314 World Bank Clean Technology Fund (WBCTF), 162, 198 nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs), 44, 81, 82, 112, 129, 170, 172–178, 179–185 institutions for registering, 182–183, 226 NAMA crediting, 180–184 See also sectoral crediting, sectoral nolose targets Index 323 official development assistance (ODA), 106, 159, 183–184, 207 offsets, 49, 67–78, 95, 105–110, 111–121, 127– 129, 140, 160, 183, 217, 219, 226 See also Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) poverty...