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Index 243 42 U.S.C. § 1983, 90 42 U.S.C. § 1981a, 120 “48 Hours on the Crack Street,” 13. See also Crack cocaine; Drugs Abram, Karen, 100 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 93, 95–97. See also Health care; Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Adoption: of children of incarcerated mothers, 56, 58; and laws reducing amount of time incarcerated parents have to reunite with children before losing custody, 59 Adoption and Safe Families Act, 59 Advancement Project, 127 Affirmative action, 38 African American men: acceptance that African American men will likely be incarcerated, 61, 148–49; arrest and imprisonment rates of, 11, 148–49; disproportionate representation in the criminal justice system, 148; and health care, 101–2; high risk of involuntary civil commitment, 102; loss of voting rights due to felony convictions, 15, 127; relative ease of reintegration into community, 61; threat allegedly posed by, 16, 17; unemployment rates of, 196n86. See also Men of color; People of color; Youth of color African Americans, 5; acutely affected by poverty in public housing, 72; association created by politicians between African Americans and poverty, 75; association with unemployability, 109; association with welfare, 38; and the crack cocaine–powder cocaine disparity , 190n8; and the cycle of poverty, 178; demonization of, 13–14, 177; discrimination against in housing market, 83; disenfranchisement of newly enfranchised African Americans, 126; disproportionately diagnosed with dangerous subcategories of schizophrenia, 102; disproportionately disenfranchised because of criminal convictions, 122, 130–31, 134; disproportionately high rate of unemployment among, 109, 225n11; disproportionately subjected to involuntary civil commitment, 102; disproportionate representation in the criminal justice system, 177, 236n29, 236n30; effect of drug addiction on family relationships with parolees, 69–70; effect of punitive sentencing policies, 147; effect of racial bias of mental health treatment , 102, 103–5, 221n112; employment discrimination against, 225n12, 227n45; enemies in War on Drugs, 13, 14, 178; health insurance of, 101, 104; homophobia, 95; impact of increase in incarceration on, 9–10; lacking political resources to ensure enforcement against housing discrimination, 85; lack of employment opportunities in community, 110; lack of mental health services for, 105, 221n110, 224n144; lack of political power, 130, 132–33, 134; likelihood of misdiagnoses of mental illnesses, 102–3; link to poverty, 83, 101, 104; most racially segregated ethnic or racial group, 72; overrepresentation in psychiatric institutions, 102; overrepresentation in public housing, 71–72; African Americans (continued) overrepresentation in juvenile justice system, 42; parole as a way of life in African American communities, 148; parolees, 16; portrayed in the media as criminals, 41; presumption of criminality of, 12, 14, 24, 197n100, 202n65; prevalence of mental illness in, 101; reluctance to seek mental health services , 102; role of religion in, 180–81; stereotypes about, 24; underclass, 20, 110. See also Communities of color; People of color African American women: comprising majority of women with HIV, 97; disproportionately incarcerated for drug crimes, 48, 51; higher risk of mental illness in prison, 101; large number of incarcerated African American women, 48, 61, 101, 149; presumption that the average welfare recipient is a black women when it is actually a white person, 202n64. See also Women; Women of color Agence France-Presse, 27 Alabama, 123, 126, 232n36, 232n37; Alabama Supreme Court, 129 Alameda County, 50. See also California Allen, George, 147 Allen, Richard, 140 American Bar Association (ABA), 19; Model Code of Judicial Conduct, 169; Model Rules of Professional Conduct, 169; Standards for Criminal Justice, 169 American Correctional Association, 127, 182 American Indian and Alaska Native programs , 105 Anderson, Elijah, 69 Anti–Drug Abuse Act, 76 Armour, Jody, 24 Arrocha v. Board of Educ. of New York, 117 Associated Press, 27 Attorney General, 6, 155, 160, 163 Austin, Regina, 61 Australia, 30 Baker v. Pataki, 132 Bakke v. California Board of Regents, 38 Bandele, Monifa, 122–23 Beck, Allen, 187 Bedford Hills Correctional Facility for Women, 65. See also New York; Prison Bell, Derrick, 43 Berkeley Media Studies Group, 42 Betts v. Brady, 166 Bias, Len: death of, 14, 192n33 Biden, Joseph, 175 Blain, Ludovic, III, 123 Boston, 181, 187; Celtics, 14; Police Department, 180; public housing in, 76. See also Massachusetts Bowring v. Godwin, 97–98 Bratton, William, 240n27 Breyer, Stephen: critique of mandatory minimum sentences, 19 “Broken windows” policing, 39, 97, 99, 161, 219n77. See also Law enforcement Brown v. Board of Education, 84 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), 10 Bureau of Justice Statistics, 92, 187 Bush, George H. W.: administration and crime control, 15; and Prison Rape Elimination Act...