Citizenship and Its Exclusions: A Classical, Constitutional, and Critical Race Critique

5. The Philosophical Influence of the Enlightenment

| 55 5 The Philosophical Influence of the Enlightenment Contemporary domestic citizenship theory was mightily influenced by the Enlightenment over and above the continuing pull of ancient GrecoRoman constructions, the legacy of the Dark Ages, and the writings of early pre-Renaissance theorists. Modern rhetorical constructions of citizenship followed Western notions of equality and focused on the mutuality of rights and obligations of citizenship. The contribution of the Enlightenment theorists was a remedy to the dearth of ancient and medieval writings on the importance of equality of membership. The following pages will examine these important theorists and the role they played in our contemporary notions of democracy and citizenship theory. Toward the end of the Dark Ages, the so-called Enlightenment Renaissance philosophers began writing on government and the role of the citizenry within a governmental structure. This chapter will review the views of many of these theorists and their writings, and will address their impact on the United States’ views on democracy and citizenship theory. Often referred to as the Enlightenment thinkers, each of these theorists—Niccolò Machiavelli , Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Charles Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau—significantly contributed to Western liberal thought. Somewhat surprisingly, the views of these giants championed the virtues of democracy but equally often championed treating some within a society as less than equal members of society. It is unfortunate, but perhaps not surprising in light of their views on certain disfavored groups, that these theorists, who greatly contributed to the structure and focus of the United States Constitution , did not have a similar impact on dismantling or at least challenging the less-recognized practice of subordinating the membership of disfavored groups within the United States. This less noteworthy aspect of their writing and influence is highlighted here to demonstrate a consistent pattern: since the very inception of demo- 56 | The Philosophical Influence of the Enlightenment cratic thought, the virtues of democracy and the central postulate of equality have simultaneously supported the practice of treating disfavored groups as subordinate members of society. As this chapter will demonstrate, even the greatest champion of equality among these Enlightenment thinkers, JeanJacques Rousseau, agreed with treating women as inferior, dependent members within a society. Others, such as Hobbes and Locke, though acknowledging man in his natural state as born in a state of freedom and equality, granted too little importance to the equality of membership for all within a civilized society. Charles Montesquieu, who was a great champion of democracy and a central figure of the theory behind the separation of powers, nonetheless used what would now be viewed as not only peculiar theories concerning global climates but also arcane and bigoted views to justify the imposition of slavery against African members of Western countries. He also used odd, temperature-based global views to justify the subjugation of women and their relegation to inferior status within Western societies. The following pages will briefly review the central and better-known aspects of these thinkers’ theories and also examine their support of something other than equality for all members of society. Niccolò Machiavelli Perhaps the earliest as well as the transitional Enlightenment philosopher was Niccolò Machiavelli. Though his theorizing on civic humanism may have started with the works of Leonardo Bruni, it was Machiavelli’s works that had a significant impact throughout Europe. In the fifteenth century, through his writings such as the Prince and the Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy, Machiavelli was the most influential humanist of the period. It was in his works on the Discourses on Livy, which reflected on the greatness of ancient Rome, that he commented on citizenship.1 He was one of the early European writers influencing modern constructions of democracy, and he reemphasized the need for active citizenship as extolled during the classical era. Peter Riesenberg noted that Machiavelli “is so important in the greater history of citizenship because it is his reformulation of the concept and issues surrounding it that plays a big role in later history.”2 Machiavelli was thus the most distinguished of all the Florentine writers. His works were written roughly a century after Milan’s threat to invade Florence and the impact said thwarted effort had on republican governance and active citizenship. Machiavelli drew upon the Roman and the Greek The Philosophical Influence of the Enlightenment | 57 experience to supplement his own views, though he drew upon Rome more than Athens. His ideal...