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170 Delores Jones-Brown and Brian A. Maule Turnpike. See also Engel, “A Critique of the ‘Outcome Test’”; and Harcourt, “Rethinking Racial Profiling.” 148. See, for example, Persico, “Racial Profiling, Fairness, and Effectiveness of Policing”; Borooah, “Racial Bias in Police Stops and Searches”; and Chakravarty, “Economic Analysis of Police Stops.” 149. A Haitian immigrant violently attacked by NYPD officer Justin Volpe in 1997. 150. An unarmed West African immigrant killed by NYPD officers in a 1999 incident where the officers fired 41 bullets. 151. An unarmed groom killed on his wedding day in 2006 by police who had been conducting an undercover operation in the bar where the victim had held his bachelor party. Fifty bullets were fired at him and his companions while they were seated in a car. 152. Hamblett, “NYCLU Suit Claims Police Target Minorities for Stops,” p. 1. 153. Ridgeway, “Analysis of Racial Disparities in New York.” 154. See note 58. 155. See, for example, State v. Soto and Wilkins v. Maryland State Police. 156. See note 8. 157. While a report by the ACLU found racial disparity in police stops of blacks and whites in Los Angeles between July 1, 2003, and June 30, 2004, Police Chief William Bratton vehemently denied allegations of racial profiling and declared 252 out of 320 claims that officers confronted someone solely on the basis of race as either unfounded or lacking sufficient evidence. Another report covering 371 racial profiling complaints coming from nineteen agencies across the country, over a two-year period, found all but four to be unsubstantiated. 158. Wilkins v. Maryland State Police. 159. The ACLU has recently been involved with settling other cases against the California Highway Patrol ($875,000); the Transportation Security Administration (TSA); and the Rhode Island State Police. Note that ethnicity-based detentions in airports were a problem even before September 11, 2001. R e f e r e n c e s Alpert, Geoffrey, John MacDonald, and Roger Dunham. 2005. Police suspicion and discretionary decision making during citizen stops. Criminology 43:407–434. Banks, R. Richard. 2001. Race-based suspect selection and colorblind equal protection doctrine and discourse. UCLA Law Rev. 48:1075–1124. Banks, R. Richard. n.d. Beyond rights, irrationality, and racial profiling. Available at http:// www.berkley.edu/institutes/csls/bankspaper.pdf. Barnes, Steve. Ex-narcotics agent gets 10 years probation. New York Times. January 19, 2005. Beck, Allen and Christopher Mumola. 1999. Prisoners in 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Blackburn, Jeff, director of the Tulia Legal Defense Project, interviewed by Terry Gross of National Public Radio on June 17, 2003. Blacks law dictionary. 6th ed. 1990. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing. Borooah, Vani. 2001. Racial bias in police stops and searches: An economic analysis. European Journal of Political Economy 17:17–37. Bratton, William and Peter Knobler. 1998. Turnaround. New York: Random House. Brazil, Jeff and Steve Berry. Color of driver is key to stops in I-95 videos. Orlando Sentinel. August 23, 1992, A1. Racially Biased Policing 171 Brunson, Rod. 2007. Police don’t like black people: African American young men’s accumulated police experiences. Criminology and Public Policy 6:71–102. Callahan, Gene and William Anderson. 2001. The roots of racial profiling. Reason Magazine. August–September. Chakravarty, Shanti. 2002. Economic analysis of police stops and searches: a critique. European Journal of Political Economy 18:597–605. CNN.com. Texas drug bust raises questions of racial prejudice. October 2, 2000. Cole, David. 1999. No equal justice: race and class in the American justice system. New York: The New Press. Curry, George E. 1999. Profiling cops: key to curbing police abuses. Emerge 10. Davis, Marcia. 1999. Traffic violation. Emerge 10. Dovidio, John, Nancy Evans, and Richard Tyler. 1986. Racial stereotypes: the contents of their cognitive representation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 22:22–37. Dressler, Joshua. Understanding criminal law. 2d ed. 1997. New York: Mathew Bender. Drug Policy Alliance. Recent Exoneration in Tulia, Texas. April 12, 2002. Eberhardt, Jennifer. 2005. Imaging race. American Psychologist 60:181–190. Eberhardt, Jennifer and Phillip Goff. 2004. The morality of associating race and crime. Unpublished raw data. Eberhardt, Jennifer, Valerie Purdie, Phillip Goff, and Paul Davies. 2004. Seeing black: race, crime and visual processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87:876–893. Engel, Robin. 2008. A critique of the “outcome test” in racial profiling research. Justice Quarterly 25:1–36. Engel, Robin and Jennifer Calnon. 2004. Comparing benchmark methodologies for policecitizen contacts: stop data...

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