Underground Codes: Race, Crime and Related Fires

Notes

Notes notes to chapter 1 1. See, e.g., Marjorie Zatz (1987), “The Changing Forms of Racial/Ethnic Biases in Sentencing,” Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency 24: 69. 2. See, e.g., Cassia C. Spohn (2000), “Thirty Years of Sentencing Reform: The Quest for a Racially Neutral Sentencing Process,” Policies, Processes and Decisions of the Criminal Justice System, National Institute of Justice, 429: “The findings of more than 40 years of research examining the effect of race on sentencing have not resolved the issue of whether racial/ethnic minorities are sentenced more harshly than Whites.” 3. See, e.g., Dragan Milovanovic & Katheryn K. Russell (eds.) (2001), Petit Apartheid in the U.S. Criminal Justice System, Carolina Academic Press. 4. Mainstream analyses are those published in leading criminological journals , such as Criminology. 5. Daniel Georges-Abeyie (1990), “The Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System,” in B. MacLean & D. Milovanovic (eds.), Racism, Empiricism and Criminal Justice, Collective Press, 11–14. 6. Georges-Abeyie’s full description of petit apartheid is: Does the focus of criminal justice analysis on the formal, easily observed decision-making process obscure or even misdirect attention from the most significant contemporary form of racism within the criminal justice system? [For example] the everyday insults, rough or brutal treatment and unnecessary stops, questions, and searches of blacks; the lack of civility faced by black suspects . . . ; the quality, clarity and objectivity of the judges’ instructions to the jury when a black arrestee is on trial; the acceptance of lesser standards of evidence in cases that result in the conviction of black arrestees, as well as numerous other punitively discretionary acts by law enforcement and correctional officers as well a jurists. (Id. at 12) 7. See Milovanovic & Russell, supra note 3. 8. See, e.g., Donna Bishop & Charles E. Frazier (1996), “Race Effects in Juvenile Justice Decision-Making: Findings of a Statewide Analysis,” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 86(2): 392–414. 145 9. See, e.g., Sheri Johnson (2001), “Racial Derogation in Prosecutors’ Closing Arguments,” in Dragan Milovanovic & Katheryn K. Russell (eds.), Petit Apartheid in the U.S. Criminal Justice System, 79–102. 10. See, e.g., Ted Chiricos & Charles Crawford (1995), “Race and Imprisonment : A Contextual Assessment of the Evidence,” in Darnell Hawkins (ed.), Ethnicity , Race, and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Place, State University of New York Press. 11. Erving Goffman (1973), The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Overlook Press, 112. 12. Id. at 113. 13. Timothy Bynum & Ray Paternoster (1984), “Discrimination Revisited: An Exploration of Front Stage and Backstage Criminal Justice System Decision Making,” Sociology and Social Research 69: 90, 94. 14. Charles Lawrence III (1987), “The Id, the Ego, and Equal Protection: Reckoning with Unconscious Racism,” Stanford Law Review 39: 317, 355–358. 15. Id. 16. Id. 17. 451 U.S. 100 (1981). 18. A. Leon Higginbotham Jr. (1996), Shades of Freedom: Racial Politics and Presumptions of the American Legal Process, Oxford University Press, 195. 19. Id. at 129 (emphasis added). 20. See Johnson, supra note 9, at 79. 21. Id. at 98. 22. Id. 23. Id. at 60. 24. Donald Black (1989), Sociological Justice, Oxford University Press. 25. Id. at 4–8. 26. Milovanovic & Russell, supra note 3 at xx. 27. 527 U.S. 41 (1999). 28. Id. at 45–46. 29. The Gang Violence & Juvenile Crime Prevention Act (2000) (Proposition 21). 30. See generally, Howard Snyder, Melissa Sickmund, & Eileen Poe-Yamagata (2000), Juvenile Transfers to Criminal Court in the 1990’s: Lessons Learned from Four Studies, Office of Juvenile Justice Delinquency Programs; Sara Raymond (2000) “Comment: From Playpens to Prisons: What the Gang Violence and Juvenile Crime Prevention Act of 1998 Does to California’s Juvenile Justice and Reasons to Repeal It,” Golden Gate University Law Review 30: 223. 31. See Eileen Poe-Yamagata & Michael A. Jones (2000), “And Justice for Some: Different Treatment of Minority Youth in the Justice System,” Building Blocks for Youth, 12–13. 146 | Notes to Chapter 1 32. Id. at 14–15. 33. U.S. Sentencing Commission, 2000 Sourcebook of Federal Sentencing Statistics. 34. See, e.g., David Baldus, George Woodworth, & Charles Pulaski (1990), Equal Justice and the Death Penalty: A Legal and Empirical Analysis, Northeastern University Press. 35. Kristin Schaefer, James Hennessy, & Joseph Ponterotto (2000), “Race as a Variable in Imposing and Carrying Out the Death Penalty in the U.S.,” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 30: 35–45. 36. Marc Mauer...