Crown of Thorns: Political Martyrdom in America From Abraham Lincoln to Martin Luther King, Jr.

7. Contemporary America: Decline and Resurrection of the Martyr

Contemporary America: Decline and Resurrection of the Martyr he martyr embodies symbolically a rich biblical tradition of sin, fall, suffering, sacrifice, and redemption. This tradition, which has given meaning to the American experience, is not only a religious manifestation but also a cultural phenomenon, an essential part of what can be called the American civil religion. Yet, like all cultural phenomena, this tradition is dynamic, contextual, and variable. Many factors determine the degree of its significance in any given period and among specific groups in society. As we have seen in previous chapters, in the context of American history at least three general factors are crucial for developing the martyr tradition: (i) the belief of a majority of the society in biblical religion and its applicability to historical circumstances; (2) its compatibility with other cultural traditions that give meaning to human experience, such as the sanctity of human life, the ideal of freedom, the belief in progress, or the commitment to reform; (3) specific tragedies that require certain explanation in order to become meaningful. In the second third of the nineteenth century all three of these factors were dominant in the United States: most Americans still interpreted their experience in biblical terms and used religious terminology to explain historical events. In particular, a basic belief in the morality of the universe, in man's ability to free himself from sin and tyranny, and in salvation as the ultimate purpose of life, created fertile ground for the whole tradition of martyrdom. An ideology of commitment to collective salvation through the perfection of the democratic process emerges from the various discourses of 7 Ti i67 l68 CROWN OF THORNS the period. This ideology was more receptive to concepts like suffering, sacrifice, and martyrdom than the later individualistic ethos. It even bridged, for the most part, the gap between the affirmation of suffering and the pursuit of happiness, between the glorification of sacrifice and the veneration of human life. Starting with the reform movements of the 18308, the culture of sin, sacrifice, and redemption was incorporated into politics by abolitionists and reached the peak of its influence in the Civil War. The war and Lincoln's assassination provided an excellent historical context for incorporating the tradition of martyrdom into the American national consciousness. 'Tor us and our country," wrote the poet Robert Lowell, analyzing the meaning of the Gettysburg Address, "he [Lincoln] left Jefferson's ideals of freedom and equality joined to the Christian sacrificial act of death and rebirth. I believe this is a meaning that goes beyond sects of religion and beyond peace or war, and is now part of our lives as a challenge, obstacle and hope." * Indeed, as we have seen, martyrdom as a sublime concept remained potent in America throughout the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth. Authors, poets, artists, journalists, orators, preachers, educators , and politicians all used the idea of martyrdom in order to explain tragedies and to invest meaning in the suffering, death, and persecution of public figures of their time. During the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era, however, certain cultural developments undermined the effectiveness and the centrality of concepts such as suffering, sacrifice, and martyrdom. These concepts still gave meaning to the American experience between i8yos and the 19205, especially among the reform and radical movements. Nonetheless, as was shown in previous chapters, the ideological significance of sacrifice and martyrdom was challenged by new worldviews, such as a more liberal version of Christianity, the individualistic success ethos, the spirit of pragmatism, and a whole attack on the foundation of the genteel culture. These cultural developments accelerated after World War I and many authors and writers indeed considered the period of the 19205 as the beginning of our own modern time.2 Although the martyr image did not disappear from the American consciousness, its significance declined in the modern culture of the twentieth century. Even the image of such an enduring martyr as Abraham Lincoln underwent certain changes. From the 19205 the number of addresses and sermons on Lincoln greatly diminished, and the tendency of de-mystification, so common in our modern culture, CONTEMPORARY AMERICA 169 also undermined the martyr image of the Civil War president. Certainly Lincoln, together with George Washington, is still the outstanding American national hero, but those who fostered the Lincoln legacy basically stressed his achievements and character rather than his suffering and sacrifice. One explanation for the...