What Is Parenthood?: Contemporary Debates about the Family

9. Biological and Psychological Dimensions of Integrative Attachments

193 CHAPTER NINE Biological and Psychological Dimensions of Integrative Attachments Terence E. Hébert, Ellen Moss, Daniel Cere, and Hyun Song John Bowlby’s experiences with institutionalized orphans, severely deprived of maternal care, convinced him that prevailing theories were inadequate to explain the developmental sequelae he observed.1 The leading explanation of the origins of the infant’s relationship with primary caregivers maintained that the bond was a by-product of association of mothers with feeding.2 However, serious short- and long-term socioemotional problems of children raised in institutions convinced him that substitute, multiple caregivers who provided adequate nutrition to infants could not replace biological mothers. He suggested that intact parent-child bonds were as important to child development as adequate physical care,3 and that foster care could not adequately support cognitive, social, and emotional development. In Attachment and Loss,4 Bowlby posited that the “ultimate outcome” for all behavioral systems was “survival of the genes an individual is carrying ,” anchoring his theory in evolutionary biology.5 Although a primary function of attachment is to protect infants by maintaining physical proximity to caregivers, it is also likely associated with wider adaptive goals, such as facilitation of social integration and nurturing. The social and cognitive skills necessary to accomplish this include learning cooperation and competition during preschool and school-age periods and creating intimate relationships necessary for reproduction and adequate parenthood .6 Biologically based attachment has far-reaching implications for long-term development of individuals and kinship. The quality of early attachment relationships is an important predictor of social, emotional, and cognitive development.7 Further, recent work on the biological foundations of attachment relationships suggests that parenting is intrinsically connected to biological processes in both parent and child. Interconnections among genetics, epigenetics, and rearing experiences are far more intricate and complex than our description reflects , with continual interplay between behavioral, environmental, and/ or biological mechanisms in both parent and child. 194 Terence E. Hébert, Ellen Moss, Daniel Cere, and Hyun Song Here, we examine the biology of attachment, with a focus on the development of bonds between parent and child, reviewing literature regarding maternal attachment. Recent studies indicate that offspring-father interactions are important and may lead to changes in the neuronal architecture of fathers. Much of this work on attachment was recently summarized in an excellent book.8 We are interested in framing the discussion in terms of possible long-term biological consequences of changing parental structures. We examine the role of secure and insecure attachment relationships in promoting offspring survival and maintenance of kinship. We strike a note of caution with respect to changes in parenting structures and practices that might threaten biological connections within kinship systems. The Biological Bases of Attachment The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory has become the centerpiece underlying the entire scope of biology. However, the rapid rate of scientific advances has not kept pace with societal changes and the policy decisions taken to engineer them. Significant changes in parenting structures have been made for a number of reasons—the need for both parents to work, wider separation of extended families as children seek work far from home, changes in divorce laws, changes in the definition of marriage, as well as the desire of same-sex couples to raise children. Changes in parenting structures and in policies center upon adults and what is best or most desirable for them. They either assume the new arrangements have little or no impact on children or ignore children’s rights completely. Liberalization of divorce laws to end “bad” marriages is one example that had wide-reaching and unexpected consequences for children and families. Few changes in policy or practice consider the relevant biological dimensions, especially regarding how environment and early life influences shape outcomes for offspring. The Pair-Bond and Children Monogamous arrangements occur when males and females mate exclusively (or almost) and generally undertake biparental care of offspring. One well-studied model of the physiology underlying monogamy in mammals compares closely related voles; the monogamous prairie vole is generally biparental while montane and meadow voles are nonmonogamous .9 Two neuropeptide hormones, oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), have been identified as critical for partner preference 195 Biological and Psychological Dimensions formation. OT is also critical for mother-infant bonding in sheep,10 while AVP has been implicated in a number of male-specific social behaviors, including parental attachment. Both hormones play roles...