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2 THE BEGINNING OF THE END The Jewish Community before the Holocaust According to the census of 1941, Hungary had a population of 14,683,323, of whom 725,007 or 4.94 percent identified themselves as Jews. Of these, 400,981 lived in Trianon Hungary (184,453 in Budapest) and 324,026 in the territories acquired by Hungary in 1938–41: approximately 68,000 in the Upper Province and 78,000 in Carpatho-Ruthenia, acquired from Czechoslovakia in November 1938 and March 1939, respectively; 146,000 in Northern Transylvania, acquired from Romania in August 1940; and 14,000 in the area of the Bácska, acquired from Yugoslavia in April 1941. In addition, there were approximately 100,000 converts or Christians of Jewish origin who were identified as Jews under the racial laws then in effect. Of these, 89,640 lived in Trianon Hungary (62,350 in Budapest) and 10,360 in the acquired territories.1 Overwhelmingly urban and patriotic, the Jews continued to play an important role in the modernization and capitalist development of Hungary even after the debacle of World War I. A relatively small percentage of them managed to maintain their leading position in the professions and the major sectors of the economy, including banking, industry, and commerce. However, in the wake of ever harsher antisemitic agitation and governmental policies, the great majority of the Jews could hardly eke out a living. This was especially true during the war years preceding the German occupation of Hungary on March 19, 1944. The impoverished Jews were supported by the Jewish congregations, which maintained a well-developed network of religious, educational, health, and welfare organizations. The level of support varied from community to community, depending on the financial health of the central welfare organizations and of the local congregations. The larger communities had three types of congregations: Neolog (also known as Reform or Congressional), which consisted primarily of the assimilationist strata of Hungarian Jewry and which followed the modern ecclesiastical practices spearheaded by the Jewish community of Pest; Orthodox, which were composed overwhelmingly of anti-assimilationist Jews who clung to the traditional rituals and practices of Judaism; and Status Quo, the smallest, whose members usually followed 29 30 Chapter 2 an “independent” course. During the interwar period, Hungarian Jewry had 267 major and 465 minor branch congregations. Of these, 104 and 131 respectively were Neolog, 149 and 321 Orthodox, and 12 and 13 Status Quo.2 The Neolog congregations were almost always led by lay people. The Orthodox, although as patriotic as the Neolog, were usually led by rabbis. The ultra-Orthodox, including the mostly Yiddish-speaking Hasidim, were concentrated in the northeastern parts of the country, mostly in CarpathoRuthenia and Northern Transylvania. The local congregations operated under the guidance of their particular national organizations. The nature and limits of their authority were determined by the government. The central leadership of Hungarian Jewry was dominated by the Neologs, who also controlled most of the congregations in Trianon Hungary. Consisting of rich, patriotic, and generally conservative elements, this leadership was firmly committed to the values and principles of the traditional conservative-aristocratic system. Firmly identified with the revisionist aspirations of Hungary, it was convinced throughout the preoccupation era that the basic interests of Jewry were intimately intertwined with those of the Magyars. Like most Hungarian Jews, the leaders proudly identified themselves as “Magyars of the Israelite faith.” As a result, they tended to view the rise of antisemitism and the consequent adoption of antiJewish measures as a legal and constitutional issue confronting the entire nation and a reflection of the spirit of the times. They remained convinced that, unlike the Jewish communities in the neighboring countries, the Jews of Hungary would survive the war, enjoying the physical protection of the conservative-aristocratic Hungarian government. The Era before the German Occupation The entry of Hungary into World War II in late June 1941 marked a new watershed for the country’s Jewish community. During the first few months of the war, the status of the Hungarian Jews worsened considerably. Already subject to two major anti-Jewish laws restricting their economic and professional activities, the Jews were now subjected to additional restrictions stipulated in an openly “racial” law—the so-called Third Anti-Jewish Law. As we already have seen, under its provisions, many converts and Christians of Jewish ancestry were identified as Jews, and Jews were prohibited from engaging in marital or sexual relations with...

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