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Notes 6 197 Introduction 1. This was not the first foray of American women onto the international sphere. They had been active in the abolitionist and peace movements during the antebellum period, and through these movements, especially abolitionism , they established contacts with like-minded British women. See Lois W. Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Woman’s Rights (Boston: Little , Brown, 1980); Kathryn Kish Sklar, “‘Women Who Speak for an Entire Nation’: American and British Women Compared at the World Anti-Slavery Convention, London, 1840,” in The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women’s Political Culture in Antebellum America, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 301–34; and Harriet Hyman Alonso, Peace as a Women’s Issue: A History of the U.S. Movement for World Peace and Women’s Rights (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993). Recent scholarship is uncovering a first-wave international sisterhood. See Bonnie S. Anderson, Joyous Greetings: The First International Women’s Movement, 1830–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); and Nancy A. Hewitt, “Re-Rooting American Women’s Activism: Global Perspectives on 1848,” in Women’s Rights and Human Rights: International Historical Perspectives , ed. Patricia Grimshaw, Katie Holmes, and Marilyn Lake (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 123–37. 2. See, for example, Nancy Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987); and Leila J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997). 3. Rebekah Kohut quoted in World Congress of Jewish Women, Vienna, May 6–11, 1923 (Vienna: Druckerei-U. Verlags-A.G. Ignaz Steinmann, 1923), 10. 4. For settlement house work see, for example, Robyn Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Doris Groshen Daniels, Always a Sister: The Feminism of Lillian D. Wald (New York: Feminist Press, 1989). On temperance see Ruth Bordin, Frances Willard: A Biography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986); and Ian R. Tyrrell, Woman’s World/Woman’s Empire: The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union in International Perspective, 1800–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991). On reforming delinquent girls, see Mary E. Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protect- Notes to Introduction 198 ing and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995). For women and urban activism, see, for example, Maureen A. Flanagan, Seeing With Their Hearts: Chicago Women and the Vision of the Good City, 1871–1933 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002). 5. American women’s involvement in World War I and the relief initiatives of those years have not been studied extensively by historians of the period. For American women in World War I, see Maurine Weiner Greenwald , Women, War and Work: The Impact of World War I on Women Workers in the United States (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980); Barbara J. Steinson, American Women’s Activism in World War I (New York: Garland, 1982); and Steinson, “‘The Mother Half of Humanity’: American Women in the Peace and Preparedness Movements in World War I,” in Women, War, and Revolution , ed. Carol R. Berkin and Clara M. Lovett (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980), 259–84. More recently European historians have begun to examine gender dynamics during the war, looking at the structural, economic, and occupational changes that transformed women’s lives, and analyzing shifts in the gender system. These works, together with those investigating racial dynamics as colonial subjects arrived in Great Britain and France to serve as soldiers and laborers are adding greater complexity to the study of the female experience during World War I. See Philippa Levine, “Battle Colors: Race, Sex, and Colonial Soldiery in World War I,” Journal Of Women’s History 9 (Winter 1998): 104–30; Tylar Stovall, “The Color Line behind the Lines: Racial Violence in France during the Great War,” American Historical Review 103 (June 1998): 737–69; Angela Woollacott, “‘Khaki Fever’ and Its Control: Gender, Class, Age and Sexual Morality on the British Homefront in the First World War,” Journal of Contemporary History 29, no. 2 (1994): 325–47; Woollacott, On Her Their Lives Depend: Munitions Workers in the Great War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and Woollacott, “From Moral to Professional Authority: Secularism, Social Work, and Middle-Class Women’s Self-Construction in World War I Britain,” Journal of Women’s History 10 (Summer 1998): 85–111. These works move beyond documenting...

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