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169 the Ulmer Scale, developed by James Ulmer, a film analyst, journalist, and contributing writer to the New York Times, in 1997, tracks and scores star bankability , which refers to “the degree to which an actor’s name alone can raise full or majority financing up front for a motion picture.”1 The higher the score, the greater the actor’s bankability. Don Cheadle’s discovery of the Ulmer Scale parallels an incident in Morrison’s Beloved when a former slave recounts the moment he discovered his economic value in the slave market. While the Ulmer Scale tracks the value of actors from all races, the commodification of black bodies has persisted since slavery. In 1787, the Three-fifths Compromise determined that three-fifths of the slave population in southern states would be counted for the purposes of taxation and representation.2 This remained the practice until slavery was abolished with the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865. A few years later, in 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, providing representation and equal protection to all people under the law. African Americans had no representation or protection as human beings under the law prior to these amendments, which had to be reinforced by the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The treatment of blacks under the Three-fifths Compromise is symbolically similar to the valuation of black stars on the Ulmer Scale, regardless of intention. 5 the Paradox of Branding, Black Star Power, and Box office Politics Really, there is a scale—i think it’s called the ulmer Scale, i’m not sure— there’s been a scale that’s been created where you stick in an actor’s name and it generates a percentage. . . . And that’s how a lot of these guys overseas make money. they’re like, we need 90%. Now if that means don Cheadle and gabriel Byrne and kathleen turner, fine. As long as it equals 90%. . . . Well, this is a scale that i have seen one time that someone pulled out of a briefcase and showed me, and that i’ve never seen again. . . . And i’ve been looking for it ever since. —don Cheadle, 2004 170 it’S Not JuSt BuSiNESS Under the Three-fifths Compromise, the black population served to benefit the very states that exploited them, yet black people could not reap the benefits of their contributions. This chapter considers the similarly liminal status of black stars in the current star system in Hollywood and its horizontal integration with professional theater. While all are measured according to their ability to generate revenue, this practice is particularly harmful for black actors, actresses, and audiences . Film and theater are the only industries in American society where one can legally use racial criteria in hiring practices. Casting notices frequently include the race, color, age, and other physical characteristics that actors must possess to even be considered. Plantation ideology is insidiously reinforced by such practices . The economic and cultural consequences for black Americans and women are, on close inspection, detrimental to the future of African American film. It would be inaccurate and disrespectful to equate the experiences of current African American actors and actresses in Hollywood to enslaved Africans ’ positioning on plantations without acknowledging the vast differences between them. Enslaved Africans not only experienced limitations on their freedom but also death, maiming, sexual assault, and other violence and threats of violence that whites could inflict upon them with impunity. Unlike their ancestors, Cheadle and his colleagues can choose their professions and, in many cases, the roles they play. In comparison to their white counterparts, however, black actors still experience significant disparities. Although contemporary black actors and actresses may appear to have more options than their predecessors in the field, industry practices and established precedent significantly influences their careers and complicates their selections. There are eerie parallels between the plantation scheme and the star system , especially in regard to branding, patterns of typecasting, and the path to stardom. Branding, discussed in greater detail in this chapter, is closely tied to typecasting and star power. Performers of any race who successfully execute a particular character type are more likely to be cast in similar roles. Through these roles and careful cultivation, the performer becomes a recognizable brand with symbolic and economic potential. Through ghosting, the performer infuses meaning from previous roles into the film while simultaneously attracting familiar audiences, which increases the film’s earning potential. Typecasting limits all actors...

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