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183 METHODOLOGICAL APPENDIX At the center of this study are the stories of African Americans, “swarthy Jews,” immigrants, single mothers, and the poor, all of whom have been historically marginalized, delegitimized, and silenced in much sociological research. This project engages an antiracist standpoint theory and critical race methods to “present group voices in a manner that [does] not pathologize or reify them” and privilege the daily lives of “invisibilized” groups (Mirza 1998: 90). These bottomup historical explorations use marginalized groups’ desires and demands to understand how schools shape racial inequalities and identities and how activists mobilize to confront both these inequalities and effects of mobilization on group identities.1 Research Design: Data Sources and Considerations For all cases, primary archival data sources were used to, first, construct a theoretically informed chronological account of each protest case, and then determine and analyze activists’ conceptions and interpretations of their racial, ethnic, and American identities at the time. I triangulated all information using sources from a variety of ideologies within each community to ensure that descriptions of both cases and demands are accurate. Actors’ narratives often differ in public, when among people who consider them inferior, and in private, when free to speak their minds without fear of further subordination (Alexander 2001: Kelley 1996; Scott 1990; Taylor & Whittier 1992). To explore these public and private articulations of identity, I collected data from public and private protest accounts. Data from the public sphere included newspapers, trial transcripts, and local and state government and educational officials and organizations. I used newspapers to identify individuals and protest locations, and create timelines of protests and master name and organization lists to guide collection of archival data. I obtained information from the private sphere from manuscript collections originating within each community. METHODOLOGICAL APPENDIX 184 Data Sources GARY PLAN AND HEBREW PROTESTS. Contemporary newspaper accounts of the protests against the Gary Plan and for Hebrew included mainstream and Jewish newspapers. Mainstream papers included the New York Times, the New York Daily Globe, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, and the New York Sun. Englishlanguage Jewish newspapers included the American Hebrew, Jewish Tribune and Hebrew Standard, and Jewish Daily Bulletin. The American Hebrew, founded in 1879, was the “major Jewish weekly with a Reform inclination” (More 1981: 116), to which many Jews were quickly turning. The editorial staff, members of the German-Jewish upper-class, condescended toward Russian Jews but vigilantly opposed American anti-Semitism. On the other hand, the Jewish Tribune and Hebrew Standard reflected the ideas of recent Jewish migrants, many of whom were Orthodox. The Jewish Daily Bulletin is frequently cited in studies examining Jews’ sentiments toward the schools (Moore 1981; Brumberg 1986). I chose these papers for three reasons: each was published continuously throughout the Gary Plan era, reflected the concerns of different segments of the Jewish community, and has been relied upon by previous researchers of these eras. Documents from the manuscript collections of NYC’s Board of Education, mayoral papers, and at the American Jewish Historical Society provided additional insights into these protests. New York City’s Municipal Archives house both New York City’s Board of Education and mayoral paper collections. Board of Education records detailing the Gary Plan and subsequent Jewish concerns can be found in Series IV.H.3.c. Data regarding Hebrew cases was primarily located in Series 755: Bureau of Reference, Research and Statistics, Reference Collection, and Vertical Files 409, 409.1, and 412. Mayoral papers examined for the Gary Plan included those of John Purroy Mitchel (1914–1917) and John F. Hylan (1918–1925). A small folder regarding the Gary Plan can also be found in Mitchel’s papers at the Library of Congress. During the Hebrew case, NYC’s mayors included James Walker (1926–1932), John L. O’Brian (1933), Fiorello LaGuardia (1934–1945), and William O’Dwyer (1945–1950). Documentation of activism for Hebrew classes at NYC’s American Jewish Historical Society appear in the records of the Jewish Board of Education, the Kehillah, the Educational Alliance, and the Society for the Advancement of Judaism. The papers of Stephen S. Wise, the acting chair of the Hebrew Committee, offer the most valuable record of these efforts. His papers exist on microfilm both at the American Jewish Historical Society and Brandeis University. James P. Rosenbloom, the head librarian at Brandeis, graciously lent these papers. Also at the AJHS are papers of Jewish organizations supporting the Hebrew Committee’s efforts and working autonomously to promote Hebrew language...

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