Crucible For Survival: Environmental Security and Justice in the Indian Ocean Region

Chapter 1: Crucible for Survival: Earth, Rain, Fire, and Wind

3 1 Crucible for Survival earth, rain, fire, and wind timothy doyle In pre-colonial times the Indian Ocean was a crucible for the first global economy. . . . (Ghosh and Muecke 2004) Introduction In February 2007, we were in Muscat, Oman, for the Fourth Meeting of the Indian Ocean Research Group (IORG), focusing on issues of marine biodiversity and fisheries security. Fish is the most earth’s most traded commodity, and in many ways the successful management of global fish stocks will determine human survival in the long term. Muscat was a very appropriate place to host such a conference. It is from here that stories of Sinbad the Sailor first emerged, telling epic tales of a man sailing the seven seas, with the Indian Ocean as the fulcrum of such adventures. It is also most appropriate in the context of the 21st century, for to describe the environmental security of Oman is to provide a snapshot for the whole region. In many ways, telling the story of modern Oman touches on most of the major themes of environmental security and justice which emerge from this compendium. First, and most obviously, providing an environment which is secure for the majority of the people living in Oman is a question that haunts policy makers in that country. Oman’s natural terrestrial environment has been devastated. Particularly since the 1960s, the nation has relied almost exclusively on oil exports to support the local economy. As is suggested in later chapters in this collection, oil—or black gold—can be simultaneously a curse as well as a gift. Its absolute dominance of the local economy and ecology of a country often means neglect in a whole range of competing management spheres. Water, for example, is a real problem in Oman. Groundwater has been so heavily drawn down that now the sea invades the underground aquifers, the land becoming too rich in salt. Soil, as a consequence, is often imported into Oman for the purposes of growing foodstuffs. This incredibly expensive practice is offset by revenue gained from oil production. Unfortunately for Omanis, their oil reserves are dangerously low, and are predicted to run out within the next fifteen years. As a means of providing an environmentally secure future for Oman, the Sultanate is looking to diversify its economy, and sees the expansion of its fisheries as a logical step in this direction. It was within this context that the IORG was invited to Oman, hosted by the Sultanate and the Ministry for Fisheries and Agriculture. In an opening address, Dr. Hamad bin Said Al A’ufi, Undersecretary of the Ministry, stated that the fisheries sector is considered “one of the most important nonhydrocarbon sectors being relied on to boost the national economy” (Times of Oman 2007). He went on to say that he saw the IORG as a partner in helping Oman preserve fisheries resources for future generations by developing wise polices to achieve food security under sustainable development. The language of sustainable development is something that the countries of the Indian Ocean have inherited, in recent times, from the more wealthy global North: the more affluent minority world. Indeed, these words are wise, but it must be understood at the outset of this work that the levels of environmental insecurity across the Indian Ocean Region are far higher and more critical than in the more affluent world. The absolute decimation of environments is commonplace. Thus, the direct transporting of environmental management concepts from the minority world to the majority world are not always relevant, appropriate, or sufficient. One example of the emptiness of the sustainable development rhetoric in the context of Oman was imparted on us during a visit to a local beach to witness local fisheries practices. Along one particular stretch of beach, for hundreds of yards, was a mass of shark carcasses rotting in the intense sunlight. Each shark was whole except for its fins, which had been cut out of the bodies, and then these fins were collected on a single large blanket at one end of the beach. After some discussion, we learned that the fins would be exported to lucrative Chinese markets, while the rest of the carcasses would be discarded. This is reminiscent of the ivory trade in Africa, and in no way can it be considered sustainable development. What was learned over the next week was that Oman suffers from a problem that is endemic across this great ocean, one which excludes effective...