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I n d e x Acadian orogeny, 9 acid rain, 91 Act for the Preservation of White and Other Pine Trees (1711), 117 Adirondack Mountains, 124 Agassiz, Louis, 35 agriculture: colonial practices, 103–104, 120; ecological effects of, 103, 119–122; European practices, 121; Lenape practices , 54–57; origins in Northeast, 49–50 Albany (New York), 63, 70, 88 Albion, Robert, 117 Algonquin peoples, 51, 63 Alleghenian orogeny, 9 Alley Pond Park (Queens), 41, 42, 42, 114, 114, 126 Alvarez, Walter, 29 amber, 28 American Bird Conservancy, 145 amphipods, 77 amphitrites, 78 Anderson, Albert, 47 Anderson, Robert, 47 Anderson, Tom, 79, 91 animals: bear, 48; beavers, 63; bighorn sheep, 40; bison, 40; deer, 40, 48; domestication of, 65; elk, 40, 48; habitat destruction, 65, 91; moose, 40; muskrats, 79, 91; native relationships with, 64, 65; otters, 79; overhunting, 63; as private property, 65; respect for, 65; raccoons, 79; rodents, 31, 143; wild, 66. See also birds; fish; ice ages: animals in; marine life; reptiles; shellfish Apaumaut, Hendrick, 76 Appalachian Mountains, 9 Appalachian orogeny, 9 arthropods, 20, 29, 30 Arthur Kill (Staten Island), 47, 84, 137, 138 Audubon, John James, 79, 130, 132 Audubon Plumage Bill (1910), 137–138 Avon (New York), 128 Banks, Harlan Parker, 23, 24 Bartram, John, 121 Basking Ridge (New Jersey), 114 Battery, The (New York City), 2 Battle of Pell’s Point (1776), 44 Bay Ridge (Brooklyn), 136 beach replenishment: Coney Island, 154–155; Westhampton Beach, 153–154 bedrock (New York City), 1–3, 6–9, 13 Beecher, Charles Emerson, 4–5tab, 21 Beecher’s Trilobite Beds, 4–5tab, 21–22 Benepe, Adrian, 126 Berger, Joseph, 141 Billy Goat Hill (Long Island), 43 BirdLife International, 145 birds, 127–145; adaptations by, 139, 140, 141, 142; American redstarts, 127; bald eagles, 128, 141; Baltimore orioles, 128; black-crowned night herons, 79, 136–137; Canada geese, 144; captive breeding and release programs, 141; clapper rail, 79; comebacks, 144, 145; double-crested cormorants, 137; ducks, 31, 138; early uses of, 128; eastern screech owls, 142, 143; egrets, 76, 79, 134, 135, 136, 138; extirpations of, 129–136; extinctions of, 129–136; forest, 125; fossils, 128; fox sparrows, 42; glossy ibis, 79; great blue herons, 79, 128; green-backed herons, 138; gulls, 138; habitat loss, 106, 125, 140, 141, 145; hawks, 142, 144; heath hens, 132–133; hermit thrushes, 42; herons, 79, 134, 136, 138; ibises, 79, 138; little blue herons, 138; migratory, 142, 145; in mythology, 128; Neotropical , 127, 128, 145; oil spills and, 138; ospreys , 139, 140; owls, 142, 143; parulas, 127; passenger pigeons, 130–133, 143; peregrine falcons, 139, 140, 141; pesticides and, 138, 139, 140, 141; poachers, 137; red-eyed vireos, 128; red knots, 30, 31; redstarts, 127; red-tailed hawks, 142; reintroduction of, 133; rock dove (pigeon), Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations. birds, (continued) 143; ruddy turnstones, 30; sanctuaries/ refuges, 137; sandpipers, 30, 31; scarlet tanagers, 128; sharp-tailed sparrow, 79; snowy egrets, 136, 138; sparrows, 79, 143, 144; sport hunting and, 140, 141; starlings, 144; trade in plumage, 133–136; turkeys, wild, 129, 133; warblers , 127–128; wasteful hunting of, 129–133; waterfowl, 129–130, 138; whistling swans, 128–129; yellowcrowned night herons, 138 Blommaert, Samuel, 82 Bonamo, Patricia, 22, 24 Bourque, Jean and Ron, 106 Boyle, Robert, 76, 88, 122 brachiopods, 4–5tab, 22 Bradley, Guy, 137 Brighton Beach (Brooklyn), 146, 156 Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 108, 127; New York Metropolitan Flora Project, 108, 109, 111 Brunt, Marijke, 152 bryozoans, 4–5tab Bull, John, 136 Burgess Shale, 21 Burroughs, John, 132 Bush, George H. W., 95 Bush, George W., 90, 95 Bushwick (Brooklyn), 113 Cambrian explosion, 20 Cameron’s Line, 6, 8, 12 Canarsee peoples, 60, 68 Caronia, Gregory, 159 Carson, Rachel, 18, 138, 139 Catskill Delta, 9, 22 Catskill Mountains, 22 Caumsett State Park (Long Island), 43 Center for Urban Restoration Ecology (CURE), 108 Central Park (New York City), 6; bird migration and, 127; geological map, 12; the Ramble, 127, 143; strata and outcrops in, 11; Strawberry Fields, 127; Umpire Rock, 11 cephalopods, 4–5tab Chapman, Frank, 132, 134 City Island (Bronx), 44, 85 Clean Water Act (1972), 88, 89, 90, 138 Clean Water/Clean Air Bond Act of New York (1997), 92 Clemants, Steven, 108 climate change, 147; global warming and, 147, 149, 150; greenhouse gases and, 149, 150; human-induced, 148, 149; and hurricanes, 158, 159; increased precipitation, 149; population expansion and, 150; sea level and, 147, 149; speed of, 149. See also Holocene; ice ages Clovis culture, 47; spear...

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