A History of Appalachia

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Sources Introduction I have mainly depended upon the following for my definition of Appalachia : Nevil M. Fenneman, PhysiographyofEastern United States. New York: McGraw-Hill,1938. Karl B. Raitz and Richard Ulack, Appalachia: A Regional Geography; Land, People and Development. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1984. By far the best discussion of the various definitions ofAppalachia is found in Raitz and Ulack, Appalachia, p. 9-33. Much recent literature insists that Appalachia is but an invention of a reforming Northern intelligencia, thus the region should not be considered as an exceptional and distinctive area separate from the rest of the United States. See: Henry D. Shapiro, Appalachia on Our Mind: The Southern Mountains and Mountaineers in the American Consciousness, 1870-1920. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978; and Allen W. Batteau, The Invention ofAppalachia. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990. Even a recent volume on nineteenth-century Appalachian history holds that the region did not exist until it had been properly conceptualized . See: Mary Beth Pudup, Dwight B. Billings and Altina Waller, editors , Appalachia in theMaking: The Mountain South in the Nineteenth Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. My contention is that Appalachian exceptionalism existed as early as the Backwoods Period, and especially later in what is termed the "Cohee Period." See especially: ThomasJefferson Wertenbaker, The Old South: The Founding ofAmerican Civilization. New York: Scribners, 1942; and James Kirke Paulding, "Letter X," Letters from the South (1817). In Robert Higgs and Ambrose N. Manning, editors, Voices from the Hills. New York: Unger, 1975, p. 64-66. Most recentAppalachian scholarship hasbeen particularly impressed with the colonial economic status of Appalachia. See especially: 248 Sources Helen M. Lewis, Linda Johnson, and Donald Askins, editors, Colonialism in Modern America: The Appalachian Case. Boone, N.C.: Appalachian Consortium Press, 1978; and Wilma A. Dunaway, The First American Frontier: Transition to Capitalism in Southern Appalachia, 1700-1860. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. This Dunaway volume fairly convincingly applies the World Systems Theory of Immanual Wallerstein to the Appalachian Experience.ConcerningAmerican and regional yeomanry, a massive literature has developed regarding the myth and reality of yeomanry since Jefferson's time. See: Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform. New York: Vintage, 1955. Hofstadter holds that yeomanism has always been a misleading myth. Many of the New Social Historians have studied early American farming in the various sections of the United States, as well as the story of the move from self-sufficient farming to market-oriented agriculture. For our purposes, see especially: James A. Henretta, "Families and Farms: Mentalite in Pre-Industrial America," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., vol. 35 (1978), p. 3-32; and Robert D. Mitchell, Commercialism and Frontier: Perspectives on the Early Shenandoah Valley. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1977. The continuing and changing experience with wilderness is seen in: Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967; and Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit Against the Wilderness. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994. Chris Bolgiano, The Appalachian Forest: A Searchfor Roots and Renewal. Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1998. The theme of regional misunderstanding, misleading stereotypes and confusing analysis as related to Appalachia is seen in: Deborah Vansau McCauley, Appalachian Mountain Religion: A History . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995; and / Paul Salstrom, Appalachia's Path to Dependency: Rethinking a Region's Economic History, 1730-1940. Lexington: UniversityPress ofKentucky, 1994. Chapter 1: The Indian Era For this chapter I was dependent primarily upon: Paul S. Martin, George I. Quigly and Donald Collier, Indians Before Columbus: Twenty Thousand Years of North American History Revealed by Archaeology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947. Francis Jennings, The Founders ofAmerica from the Earliest Migration to the Present. New York: Norton, 1993. Sources 249 Charles Hudson, The Southeastern Indians. Knoxville: University of TennesseE' Press, 1976. On Cherokee history, see particularly: Roy Dickens, Cherokee Prehistory: The Pisgah Phase in the Appalachian Summit Region. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976. Bernie C. Keel, Cherokee Archaeology: A Study ofthe Appalachian Summit . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976. Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution ofCherokee Society. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979. Theda Perdue, The Cherokee. New York: Chelsea House, 1989. The extent ofIroquois influence is explored by FrancisJennings' trilogy on the Covenant Chain. See especially his Ambiguous Iroquois Empire : The Covenant Chain Confederation ofthe Indian Tribes with the English Colonies. New York: Norton, 1984. Certain archaeologists...