The Gulf: The Bush Presidencies and the Middle East

3. Boots on the Ground

43 3 Boots on the Ground Since the founding of the United States, American presidents have engaged in over three hundred separate uses of force. However, one could argue that the United States’ use of force against Saddam Hussein and Iraq constituted one of the longest periods of hostility against another country. The hostilities began with Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent Persian Gulf War in 1990–91 and continued well into the first part of the twenty-first century with the end of operations in December 2011. Thirteen years separated George H. W.’s eviction of Iraq from Kuwait , aided by the United Nations, and George W.’s eviction of the Saddam Hussein regime from power. In both cases, the president established the strategy, determined the policy choices, and guided the country from his convictions. Crisis 1990: The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait On August 1, 1990, President George H. W. Bush learned of Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. American officials, although concerned about Iraq’s posturing against Kuwait in previous months, were caught off guard. The shock rippled through the administration and concerns began to arise that Saudi Arabia might be Iraq’s next target. George H. W’s response to the crisis would serve to define his administration. Additionally, it presented an opportunity for the administration to establish a new era of peace and stability in world politics. The Bush administration’s Iraqi policy was inherited from the Reagan administration, and initially George H. W. did not offer any significant 44 THE GULF changes. Throughout the previous decade, the United States had cultivated a relationship with Iraq based on the shared interest of limiting Iranian influence in the region. This policy was the result of the Iranian revolution of 1978–79, which brought a radical Islamic fundamentalism , led by Ayatollah Khomeini, into power in Iran. Further, Khomeini’s 150 miles 100 50 0 I r a n Tu r k e y S y r i a I R A Q S a u d i A r a b i a Kuwait Jo rd an Nasiriya Najaf Kut Basrah Karbala Ramadi BAGHDAD Sulaymaniyah Erbil Samarra Kirkuk Mosul Tal Afar Umm Qasr Ur Qa'im Rutba EUPHR A T E S T I G R I S PERSIAN GULF Iraq and surrounding countries Boots on the Ground 45 staunch anti-Western rhetoric and actions threatened American interests and moderate Arab regimes throughout the Middle East. The humiliation of the overthrow of the pro-American government of the shah was furthered when revolutionaries seized the American embassy in Tehran in November 1979, holding fifty American hostages for 444 days. During the crisis, Saddam Hussein seized the opportunity to attack Iran. Following a long history of border disputes, and fears related to the aggressive and expansive nature of the Iranian revolution, Iraq invaded Iran on September 22, 1980. While Iraq took early advantage of the chaos of the Iranian revolution, Iran had regained all lost territory by 1982 and went on the offensive. For the next six years, the two countries were at war, despite multiple cease-fire urgings by the UN Security Council. Throughout the crisis, the Reagan administration supported Iraq, deciding that Iran and its revolution were antithetical to American interests and policy. As a result, the United States provided technological aid, intelligence , and military equipment and weapons to Saddam Hussein’s regime . As Howard Teicher, a former NSC official, explained, “President Reagan decided that the United States would do whatever was necessary . . . to prevent Iraq from losing the war with Iran . . . the United States actively supported the Iraqi war effort by supplying the Iraqis with billions of dollars of credits, by providing U.S. military intelligence and advice to the Iraqis, and by closely monitoring third country arms sales to Iraq to make sure that Iraq had the military weaponry it required. The United States also provided strategic operational advice.”1 In addition, the United States provided tactical battlefield assistance to the Iraqi Army. American intelligence officers helped interpret satellite information and promoted vast intelligence sharing. In some cases, American troops were actually crossing the border into Iran alongside Iraqi troops.2 When George H. W. arrived in the Oval Office, he inherited a policy that clearly supported Iraq and was aiming to make it a key ally in the Middle East. The Bush administration decided to continue and extend Reagan’s policy...