Bioarchaeology of East Asia: Movement, Contact, Health

6. Tuberculosis and Population Movement across the Sea of Japan from the Neolithic Period to the Eneolithic

6 Tuberculosis and Population Movement across the Sea of Japan from the Neolithic Period to the Eneolithic TAKAO SUZUKI From prehistory until the present, humankind has been affected by a variety of infectiousdiseases.Major epidemicshave causedthe exterminationof millions of human beings, at times leading to the downfall and even annihilation of entire nations (Sigerist 1943). The early African origin of the tuberculosis pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mostowy and Behr 2005), leprosy, M. leprae(Monotetal.2005),andanumberofotherinfectiousagents(e.g.,Linz etal.2007)hasnowbeendocumentedbymolecularphylogenyofthisandrelated microorganisms. Thus, tuberculosis and other highly virulent infectious diseases have been a major natural selective factor in human evolution and have deeply influenced human population history and social organization. Because the progression and spread of tuberculosis infection involves complex interactions between the host’s immune system, the pathogen, and the environment, change in one will lead to change in another (Roberts and Buikstra 2003; Wilbur et al. 2008). With respect to the host and environment , factors such as population growth and increased population density, unsanitary living conditions, malnutrition, natural disasters, war, and migration may render humans more vulnerable to tuberculosis, an infection that often leaves specific lesions on the skeleton. It is very important to clarify the relationshipbetweenarchaeologicalcasesdiagnosedasevidencingtuberculosis and the epidemiological factors that accelerated and aggravated the prevalence of tuberculosis, particularly in the early history of the disease. Its mere presence in an individual or a population, without an epidemiological context, is of minor significance in the evaluation of the biological and social implications of the disease (Powell 1991). ThischapterdealswiththeearlyprevalenceoftuberculosisinFarEastAsia from both a paleoepidemiological and a sociological point of view. There is 126 Takao Suzuki now a substantial consensus (e.g., Brace and Nagai 1982; Turner 1990; Nakahashi 1995; Pietrusewsky 1999; Nakahashi et al. 2002; Yasuda 2002) that during the Eneolithic period,1 which began around 2600 BC in China, a major influx of people and culture entered the principal Japanese islands by way of the Korean peninsula, resulting from a large-scale movement of human population originating in China. In particular, I would emphasize that evidence of infectious disease, as represented by tuberculosis, can be seen as an indicator of this population movement between China and Korea, as well as across the Sea of Japan to Japan during that time. While the study reported here may be somewhat less detailed than paleopathological syntheses previously developed for other regions, the results and implications presented in this chapter lay a foundation for further work on tuberculosis in the past, not only in Far East Asia but also in the Americas. Historical Background of the Far East Asian Region China and Korea From around the fifth century BC to the third century AD, there was a largescale migration of people from the Chinese mainland via the Korean peninsula across the Sea of Japan to the Japanese archipelago (see figure 6.1 for a summarized chronology). In China, iron weapons and infantry were first deployed during the Eastern Zhou (周) dynasty (770–221 BC). This period, which generally witnessed a fragmentation of political power in northern China (Tsuruma 1996), has traditionally been divided into the Spring and Autumn period (春秋時代) (770–476 BC) and the Warring States period (戦国時代) (475–221 BC). Rebellion by subordinate kings led to the annexation of smaller states and created huge numbers of refugees, particularly in the north. Finally, with the victory of the Qin (秦) state over its rivals, the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang Di (秦始皇帝), unified China in 221 BC. Subsequently , following a policy of continuous expansion, the Han (漢) dynasty (206 BC–AD 200) asserted sovereignty over vast regions of today’s China. During that same time, the northern peninsula of Korea was under the influence of the Chinese state of Yen (燕), one of a number of small competing polities based in the northern part of China and a notable producer of iron. From about the fourth to the third century BC, bronze and iron products were introduced to the northern part of Korea, accompanying one or more new populations, referred to in historical texts as the Yemaek (濊貊). According to the Samguk Sagi (三国史記) (The History of Three Kingdoms in Korea), the Yemaek were originally from the northeastern Chinese region of Liaoning(遼寧).These people invadedKorea,foundingthe Koguryo (高句 Tuberculosis and Population Movement across the Sea of Japan 127 麗) Kingdom, and thus initiating the Korean Historical Age (Riotto 1989). In 108 BC, forces of the Han dynasty conquered the northern peninsula and established three military commands in the region. With...