The Convergence of Judaism and Islam: Religious, Scientific, and Cultural Dimensions

15. “Estos Makames Alegres” (These Cheerful Maccams)—External Cultural Influences on the Jewish Community of Izmir on the Eve of the “Young Turk Revolution”: Theater and Music

15 “Estos Makames Alegres” (These Cheerful Maccams)—External Cultural Influences on the Jewish Community of Izmir on the Eve of the“Young Turk Revolution” Theater and Music Efrat E. Aviv The relationship and mutual influences between the Jews and Muslims in the Ottoman Empire in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are evidenced by focusing on the Jewish community of Izmir as a microcosm of the entire Empire. This affinity manifests itself in the adoption of song and theater customs. Although these cultural instruments were outcomes of the modernization processes experienced by the Ottoman Empire, they served to strengthen, expand, and even increase the already existing gaps within Jewish society. As soon as the Jews expelled from Spain arrived in Turkey in 1492, their lives were influenced by the Muslim-Ottoman environment. A particularly deep impression was made on dress and the living conditions in the home. Evidence of influences in the use of cosmetics also exists, such as Jewish women dying their hands for decorative purposes, as the Turkish women were accustomed to doing. Interaction between Muslims and Jews also occurred in all matters related to culture and leisure. For example, rabbinical religious authorities wrote restrictions regarding External Cultural Influences on the Jewish Community of Izmir r 285 sitting in coffeehouses, a phenomenon that began in the mid-sixteenth century among the Jews of the Empire.1 These and other influences were more vastly expressed from the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the introduction of modernization and westernization to the Empire. The westernization and modernization of the Ottoman Empire, which increased in intensity from the end of the eighteenth century, had a profound impact on Ottoman Jewry. In the mid-nineteenth century, the Alliance Israélite Universelle organization began its activities among the Jewish communities in the Ottoman Empire. The Alliance established a network of modern schools, which played a significant role in the westernization and modernization of the local communities. An integral part of this westernization was the introduction of western literary and artistic motifs into the communities’ cultural and artistic life.2 This was the beginning of a multifaceted cultural transformation for the Jewish communities throughout the Empire. Journalism , literature, poetry, historical records, and naturally drama—both original and translated—were influenced. Modernization was more evident in Izmir than in other regions. In fact, during the nineteenth century, Izmir became an important metropolis and one of the most renowned cultural and commercial centers in the world and in the Ottoman Empire.3 Izmir’s financial and cultural prosperity attracted many Jews and other minorities such as Armenians and Greeks. Therefore, we have chosen Izmir in order to make a case study for the other communities in the Ottoman Empire, examining the various theatrical foundations and transformations undergone by the JewishSephardic theater and music. As the upper classes discovered the opportunities for educational enlightenment at these new AIU schools, they began distancing themselves from the old communal framework and traditions. New employment opportunities arose, clothing became more westernized, and wealthy Jews left the Jewish quarters in Izmir and moved to new ethnically and religiously mixed areas.4 Until then, the Jews used to live in the bazaar areas (Çarşı), such as Argat Bazar and Lazarato. From the end of the nineteenth century, the wealthy families who were now new bourgeoisie moved to the western side of the city, to neighborhoods such as Çeşme, Karataş, Karantina, and Gœztepe, where new housing was built.5 Moreover, Ladino , which was the language used for daily life up to this period, was 286 r Efrat E. Aviv now limited to religious use and was being replaced by French and later Turkish.6 Yet the general public remained loyal to traditional values and to the rabbis. This led to increasingly pronounced financial, intellectual, and social divergence within the Jewish community. This social and religious polarization influenced by the non-Jewish population manifested itself mainly in theater and music. From existing literature on Jewish-Sephardic theater, it appears that even before the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, their rich culture provided Spanish Muslims with many themes for the theater. After the Expulsion, Sephardic Jews owned theater companies and performed as entertainers, dancers, actors, and puppeteers.7 For instance, there is testimony by an eighteenth-century French author who notes that Jews were the ones activating the marionettes and the shadow theater figures, which were very popular...