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Chapter 3. The Daimonion of Socrates: Daimones and Divination in Neoplatonism
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chapter 3 The Daimonion of Socrates: Daimones and Divination in Neoplatonism Crystal Addey But, as I believe, I have been commanded to do this [i.e., philosophical elenchus] by the god through oracles and dreams (ἐκ μαντείων καὶ ἐξ ἐνυπνίων) and in every way in which any man was ever commanded by divine power to do anything whatsoever. —Socrates in Plato, Apology 33c5–9 Introduction Socrates stands as a figurehead in the history of Western philosophy and is often perceived as the champion of reason and rationality. Within the history of modern classical and philosophical scholarship, Socrates has been perceived as the paragon of rationality and reason, the founder of both rational enquiry and the Western philosophical tradition.1 Within the parameters of such a perspective, the Socratic method of elenchus (question-and-answer cross-examination) is held to be one of the most relevant elements of the Socratic heritage and is often assessed as the major contribution of Socratic discourse to Western thought, rivaled only by his contributions to moral philosophy and virtue ethics.2 Despite recent challenges,3 the view of Socrates as an arch-rationalist remains the predominant perspective today.4 Yet for later Neoplatonist philosophers, Socrates was this and yet also much, much more. These philosophers maintained that Socrates was not only the 52 Chapter 3 philosopher par excellence but also a holy man or sage and an inspired mystic and prophet. One of the key elements of Plato’s portrayal of Socrates which led these philosophers to hold such a view was the daimonion, the divine “voice” or “sign” of Socrates, which, through its prohibitions on his actions, frequently affected his action and discourse in Plato’s dialogues. Focusing on this characterization, this chapter explores Neoplatonist views of the daimonion of Socrates, while further examining their teachings on the personal daimon and the connections between daimones and divination. It focuses primarily on Proclus’s Commentary on the First Alcibiades as a central case study, for several reasons.5 First, it includes an extensive examination of the whole range of daimones, including the nature and characteristics of personal (or guardian) daimones .6 Second, Proclus discusses the nature of the daimonion of Socrates in detail; this work comprises one of the few extant accounts of this subject in late Neoplatonism ,7 although it is important to note that there was a long tradition of writing on the daimonion of Socrates within the Platonic tradition. The extant treatises of Plutarch, Apuleius, and Maximus of Tyre on “the daimon of Socrates” are key examples of this genre from the Middle Platonic period.8 I will argue that the late Neoplatonist view of Socrates as sage and mystic does not contradict or conflict in any way with the view of Socrates as a rationalist or as the philosopher par excellence. Both roles are attributed to Socrates by Neoplatonists and are seen as vital to the role of philosophy as a way of life leading toward self-knowledge and, consequently, toward knowledge of the cosmos. This mutual inclusivity derives from their metaphysical system and epistemology, whereby rationality is not in opposition to religious states of inspiration but operates on a continuum with suprarationality and divine inspiration. Thus, rationality and reason are themselves seen as ultimately gifts of the gods, which, when used in the appropriate manner, can lead to suprarational, mystic states of being, thought, and action. Within Neoplatonism, the dialectician must be a mystic, and the mystic must be a dialectician. In this sense, Socrates exemplifies the culmination of the philosophical life—the enlightened mystic who lives and acts in assimilation to the divine. Socrates as the Founder of Western philosophy: the Modern View Within Plato’s dialogues,9 Socrates often speaks of a daimonion, which he frequently calls a divine “voice” (φωνή)10 or “sign” (σημεῖον),11 which has spoken to [54.163.62.42] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 14:20 GMT) The Daimonion of Socrates 53 him “since childhood” (Apology 31d3–4), advising him against a course of action. In the Republic, Socrates claims that “few or none” have experienced having a daimonion, although he immediately qualifies this by speaking of “those who have been of this little company” (τούτων τῶν ὀλίγων).12 The warnings of the daimonion are often practical, relating to “matters great and small,” and it is understood to give him a sign that warns him not to pursue a course of action that he is in the process of initiating: “It always holds me back from something I am about to do” (ἀεὶ δέ με ἐπίσχει ὃ ἂν μέλλω πράττειν), as...