Notes
Notes Introduction 1. Alexander Dick, "Travels in America, 1806-1809: TheJournal ofAlexander Dick," Special Collections Department, University ofVirginia Library, Mss. 4528, 48-49;J. P. Brissot de Warville, New Travels in the United States ofAmerica, Performed in 1788 (New York: T. andJ. Swords for Berry and Rogers, 1792), 172. 2. Carole Shammas, ''The Space Problem in Early American Cities," William and Mary Qy,arterly 3rd. ser. 60 (2000): 506, 509. Shammas provides a telling critique of the "urban village" portrayed by William Birch. 3. Robert Waln, The Hermit in America on a Visit to Philadelphia (Philadelphia: M. Thomas, 1819), 72; Petition to the Select Council, Philadelphia, 1806, quoted in Margaret B. Tinkcom, ''The New Market in Second Street," Pennsylvania Magazine ofHistory and Biography 82 (1958): 393; The Cries ofPhiladelphia: Ornamented with Elegant Wood Cuts (Philadelphia: Johnson and Warner, 1810), 32; Henry Bradshaw Fearon, Sketches of America (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1818), 150; Brissot de Warville, New Travels, 115. Historical studies of the poor in late eighteenth- and early nineteenthcentury America include Billy G. Smith, The "Lower Sort": Philadelphia's Laboring People, 1750-1800 (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1990);John K. Alexander , Render Them Submissive: Responses to Poverty in Philadelphia, 1760-1800 (Amherst: University ofMassachusetts Press, 1980); Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible : Social Change, Political Consciousness, and the Origins ofthe American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Raymond A. Mohl, Poverty in New York, 1783-1825 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971); Carla Gardiner Pestana and Sharon Salinger, eds., Inequality in Early America (Hanover, N.H.: Dartmouth College Press, 1999). 4. See, for example, Peter Burke, ''The Language of Orders in Early Modern Europe," in Social Orders and Social Classes in Europe Since 1500: Studies in Social Stratification, ed. M. L. Bush (London: Longman, 1992), 1-12; Keith Wrightson, "'Sorts of People' in Tudor and Stuart England," in The Middling Sort ofPeople: Culture, Society, and Politics in England, 1550-1800, ed. Jonathan Barry and Christopher Brooks (London: Macmillan, 1994), 28-51; Penelope J. Corfield, ed., Language, History, and Class (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991); and David Cannadine , Class in Britain (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998). 5. These terms were employed byWilliam Harrison, a sixteenth-century English 150 Notes to Pages 4-12 writer, and are quoted in RobertJiitte, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 11. 6. See Wrightson, "Sorts of People," and Smith, ''LowerSorf', 4-6. 7. John K Alexander, "Poverty, Fear, and Continuity: An Analysis of the Poor in Late Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," in The Peoples ofPhiladelphia: A History ofEthnic Groups and Lower-Class Life, 1790-1840, ed. Allen F. Davis and Mark H. Haller (1973; Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 13. 8. For more on the definition ofpoverty, see Smith, ''Lower Sort",4-6; Alexander , "Poverty, Fear, and Continuity," 17-19;Jiitte, Poverty and Deviance, 8-9. 9. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement ofAmerica: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York: Knopf, 1992), 63-72. 10. Joanne Finkelstein, The Fashioned Self (Oxford: Polity Press, 1991), 51. 11. Chris Schilling, The Body and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), 131-32. 12. For a discussion ofthe culturally contingentways in which people read elements of character on and through the bodies of others, see Finkelstein, Fashioned Self, 4-5, and Nicole Sault, "Introduction," in Many Mirrors: Body Image and Social Relations, ed. Sault (New Brunswick, NJ.: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 1-7. 13. This proces~mployed in almshouses, prisons, and hospitals alike-was most powerfully articulated by Michel Foucault in Discipline and Punish: The Birth ofthe Prison (1977), trans. A.M. Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1977), and The Birth ofthe Clinic: AnArchaeology ofMedical Perception (1973), trans. A. M. Sheridan (London: Routledge, 1989). See also Norbert Elias, who first developed the concept of social disciplining in Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners (1939), trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978), and The Civilizing Process: State Formation and Civilization (1939), trans. EdmundJephcott (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982). For American case studies making use ofthese approaches, see DavidJ. Rothman, The Discovery ofthe Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the New Republic (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971); Michael Meranze, Laboratories ofVirtue: Punishment, Revolution, and Authority in Philadelphia, 1760-1835 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); and Alexander, Render Them Submissive. 14. Brissot de Warville, New Travels, 203. 15. Foucault argued that the institutions that controlled and disciplined bodies aggressively stifled individual agency as a significant historical force. Other scholars have argued that individuals resisted...
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